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1.
Schwarzer G 《Child development》2000,71(2):391-401
The present experiment examined the degree to which analytic and holistic modes of processing play a role in the way children and adults categorize upright and inverted faces. Seven-year-old children (n = 38), 10-year-old children (n = 40), and adults (n = 55) were instructed to classify upright and inverted faces into two categories. The construction of the categories allowed participants to categorize the faces either analytically (by focusing on a single attribute) or holistically (in terms of overall similarity). The results show both a developmental trend from analytic to holistic processing and an effect of face inversion with increasing age. Thus, it appears that 7-year-old children process upright and inverted faces in a way comparable to their processing of nonfacial visual stimuli, namely analytically, whereas a growing proportion of 10-year-olds and adults process only upright faces holistically by adopting a specific mode of face processing. 相似文献
2.
两个实验采用联结学习范式,分别探讨知觉类别和语义类别材料中,类别感知对特征学习的影响.结果发现,即使是在联结学习范式中,当学习者感知学习材料存在类别时,不仅关注可以有效预测结果的特征,也会关注类别中的其他特征.同时,在知觉类别和语义类别材科中都发现了相同的结果.本实验结果说明,当学习者感知学习材料中存在类别时,即使是在联结学习范式中,学习者也会像类别学习范式中一样,学习额外特征,支持对存在类别的感知,是影响学习者特征学习的重要原因. 相似文献
3.
Thomas B. Ward 《Child development》1990,61(3):611-613
Kemler Nelson raises several important issues regarding children's category learning in her commentary on Ward, Vela, and Hass. The points of agreement in our positions concern the extreme complexity of the phenomenon. The points of disagreement that are addressed in this reply concern Kemler Nelson's assertions that (a) children are, in general, holistic processors, (b) a holistic processing model provides a better account of children's category learning than the attribute availability model, and (c) that Ward et al. have overestimated the extent of analytic processing and underestimated the extent of holistic processing by young children. All of these points are challenged in the present paper. 相似文献
4.
Knowledge, Concepts, and Inferences in Childhood 总被引：1，自引：0，他引：1
The role of knowledge in children's inferences was investigated in 3 experiments. Experiment 1 examined developmental changes in the role of categorical membership, perceptual appearance, and item complexity in inferences for natural kind and artifact concepts. Preschoolers (5-year-olds), second graders (8-year-olds), and fourth graders (10-year-olds) were taught novel properties about target concepts and asked whether each of 4 probes had those properties. Probes varied in category membership and perceptual appearance relative to the target item. Item complexity also varied. Experiments 2 and 3 examined inferences with known and unknown concepts for familiar and unfamiliar properties. Older children's knowledge led to differential weighting of categorical information over appearance but only for known concepts and/or familiar properties. Preschoolers made no distinction between category and appearance for either known or unknown concepts. Additionally, as target item complexity increased, older children made more inferences than preschoolers. No differences between inferences about natural kind and artifact concepts were found. The role of theories and knowledge in children's drawing of inferences is discussed. 相似文献
5.
Three experiments explored the significance of deontic properties (involving rights and obligations) in representations of social categories. Preschool-aged children ( M = 4.8), young school-aged children ( M = 8.2), and adults judged the centrality of behavioral, psychological, and deontic properties for both familiar (Experiments 1 and 2, N s = 50 and 52, respectively) and novel (Experiment 3, N = 64) social categories. Preschool-aged children were the most consistent in treating deontic properties as central: Knowing a person's social category membership was more informative about obligations than about behavioral frequencies or psychological preferences. Adults treated deontic properties as central to some categories but also recognized a set that was primarily predictive of psychological dispositions. The results argue for the significance of deontic properties in the development of social cognition. 相似文献
6.
BackgroundText illustrated by pictures (i.e., multimedia material) is often used to improve learning outcomes. To support learning, it is essential to understand and specify the ongoing cognitive processes when processing illustrated texts.AimsWe focus on three cognitive processes identified when processing non-illustrated texts: activation, integration, and validation. In three experiments, we investigated whether the three processes occur during the processing of illustrated texts and whether the processes differ between illustrated and non-illustrated texts.SamplesExperiment 1 had 170 participants, Experiment 2 had 221 participants, and Experiment 3 had 132 participants.MethodAll experiments used an adapted version of the contradiction paradigm. In Experiments 1 and 2, participants read texts that contained information that was consistent vs. inconsistent with a later sentence (target sentence). It was additionally varied whether a picture illustrated the consistent vs. inconsistent information. In Experiment 3, only the pictures were consistent or inconsistent with the target sentence. We measured reading times for the target sentence and the following sentence (spillover sentence).ResultsIn all three experiments, reading times were significantly longer in the inconsistent than in the consistent conditions. This prolongation of reading times was not affected by the picture in Experiments 1 and 2.ConclusionOur results indicate that activation, integration, and validation processes are similar when processing non-illustrated and illustrated texts (Experiments 1 and 2) and also occur when information is presented across text and picture (Experiment 3). We discuss the implications for the theoretical foundations of multimedia learning. 相似文献
7.
Steven R Yussen Joel R Levin Thomas M DeRose Elizabeth S Ghatala 《Contemporary educational psychology》1976,1(2):170-179
Children's incidental recall of pictures was examined in two related experiments. Extrapolating from adult research, it was predicted that categorizing pictures with respect to their semantic properties would yield greater recall than categorizing them according to their physical properties. In Experiment 1, second-grade children were exposed to 16 line drawings cross-classified to represent four taxonomic categories and four shape categories, with four instances per category. Control subjects simply looked at pictures. Semantic subjects identified each picture's semantic category, and Physical subjects identified each physical category. In Experiment 2, first graders freely sorted the pictures and were classified as Semantic or Physical sorters based on their predominant bases for sorting. Following exposure (Experiment 1) or sorting (Experiment 2), all subjects were asked to recall the picture names. Results of both experiments show that semantic classification yields greater recall than physical classification. Experiment 2 also shows that semantic sorting yields greater semantic clustering in recall and that sorting by physical category yields greater physical clustering. It was suggested that children's preferences for a mode of processing (Experiment 2) may constitute an individual difference dimension with fairly clear-cut instructional implications. 相似文献
8.
Three experiments report developmental change in infants' tendency to parse exemplars into separate categories. In Experiment 1, a familiarization-novelty preference procedure was used. Fifty-four 4-, 7-, and 10-month-old infants were familiarized with members of two basic-level animal categories (cats and horses) and tested with novel members of the familiarized categories and with members of a third category (dogs). In Experiment 2, a habituation-dishabituation procedure was used. Forty-eight 7- and 10-month-old infants were habituated to examples of both male and female faces and tested with novel gender-typical and gender-ambiguous faces. In both experiments, 10-month-old infants appeared to form differentiated categories, whereas younger infants formed a single category to include the range of items presented during familiarization. Experiment 3 ruled out a priori stimulus preferences as an explanation for the 10-month findings in Experiment 2. 相似文献
9.
Two experiments attempted to resolve previous contradictory findings concerning developmental trends in false memories within the Deese-Roediger-McDermott (DRM) paradigm by using an improved methodology--constructing age-appropriate associative lists. The research also extended the DRM paradigm to preschoolers. Experiment 1 (N=320) included children in three age groups (preschoolers of 3-4 years, second-graders of 7-8 years, and preadolescents of 11-12 years) and adults, and Experiment 2 (N=64) examined preschoolers and preadolescents. Age-appropriate lists increased false recall. Although preschoolers had fewer false memories than the other age groups, they showed considerable levels of false recall when tested with age-appropriate materials. Results were discussed in terms of fuzzy-trace, source-monitoring, and activation frameworks. 相似文献
10.
When induction meets memory: evidence for gradual transition from similarity-based to category-based induction 总被引：3，自引：0，他引：3
The ability to perform induction appears early; however, underlying mechanisms remain unclear. Some argue that early induction is category based, whereas others suggest that early induction is similarity based. Category- and similarity-based induction should result in different memory traces and thus in different memory accuracy. Performing induction resulted in low memory accuracy in adults and 11-year-olds, whereas 5-, and 7-year-olds were highly accurate (Experiment 1). After training to perform category-based induction, 5- and 7-year-olds exhibited patterns of accuracy similar to those of adults (Experiment 2). Furthermore, 7-year-olds, but not 5-year-olds, retained this training over time (Experiment 3). With novel categories, even adults performed similarity-based induction, exhibiting high memory accuracy (Experiment 4). These results suggest a gradual transition from similarity- to category-based induction with familiar categories. 相似文献
11.
《Contemporary educational psychology》1998,23(1):1-21
Five experiments were conducted to examine the effects of cognitive load management using explanatory notes in reading passages for readers with different levels of expertise. Experiment 1 found that explanatory notes improved 5th-grade, first-language learners' comprehension (high-level processing) but not vocabulary learning (low-level processing). Experiment 2 found that vocabulary definitions integrated within a passage (integrated format) enhanced 5th graders' comprehension compared to a separate vocabulary list (separated format) but reduced vocabulary learning. Experiment 3, using adult readers, found that an integrated format reduced comprehension but enhanced vocabulary learning. Experiment 4 used low-ability 8th-grade learners of English as a second language (ESL) and found an effect similar to the 5th graders in Experiment 2. Experiment 5 showed that the effect for high-ability ESL learners was similar to the adults in Experiment 3. We argue that the efficiency of instruction depends on the extent to which it imposes an extraneous cognitive load. The same presentation format may facilitate performance or interfere with performance either through split-attention or redundancy effects, depending on learners' expertise. 相似文献
12.
Advances in our knowledge of the structure of working memory suggest that under some circumstances, effectively more processing capacity is available to learners if instructional materials use multiple information modes (e.g. auditory and visual) instead of equivalent single mode formats. This paper examined this modality effect from a cognitive load perspective in three experiments using geometry instruction. In accordance with cognitive load theory, it was predicted that the additional processing capacity provided in an audio/visual format would only enhance learning if mental resources were not devoted to extensive visual based search in order to coordinate auditory and visual information. Using two different areas of geometry, Experiments 1 and 2 found that if visual search was clearly high, then audio‐visual instruction was only beneficial if visual indicators in the form of electronic flashing were incorporated into the instructional format. Under high search conditions, a standard audio/visual format without the aid of flashing proved no better than visual only instruction. Experiment 3 attempted to clarify earlier results by using instructional materials trivially low in visual search. Data indicated that a standard, audio‐visual format resulted in superior learning to a visual only format. There was no beneficial effect of electronic flashing in Experiment 3, suggesting that visual indicators were not necessary in areas of low visual search. It was concluded that cognitive load as determined by visual search established the effectiveness of visual indicators. 相似文献
13.
Social Influences on False Belief Access: Specific Sibling Influences or General Apprenticeship? 总被引：5，自引：1，他引：5
Charlie Lewis Norman H. Freeman Chrystalla Kyriakidou Katerina Maridaki-Kassotaki Damon M. Berridge 《Child development》1996,67(6):2930-2947
Some recent studies have found a relation between the number of siblings 3–4-year-old children have and their performance on false belief tasks. 2 experiments reported here examine a variety of factors in children's social environments, including daily contact with peers and adults as well as the numbers of their siblings, on a battery of false belief tests. In Experiment 1, 82 preschoolers were studied in Rethymnon, Crete, in order to obtain a range of extended kin available as a resource for the child. In Experiment 2, 75 Cypriot preschoolers were studied in Nicosia in order to examine the influences of each child's daily social contacts, as measured by maternal questionnaire. Logistic regression revealed that the factors which account for most of the predicted variance on the theory of mind tests were ( a ) the number of adult kin available (Experiment 1) or adults interacted with daily (Experiment 2), ( b ) the child's age, ( c ) the number of older siblings a child has, and ( d ) the number of older children interacted with daily. The results suggested that theory of mind is not simply passed from one sibling to another in a process of social influence. It seems more likely that a variety of knowledgeable members of her or his culture influence the apprentice theoretician of mind. 相似文献
14.
Preschoolers mistrust ignorant and inaccurate speakers 总被引：1，自引：0，他引：1
Being able to evaluate the accuracy of an informant is essential to communication. Three experiments explored preschoolers' (N=119) understanding that, in cases of conflict, information from reliable informants is preferable to information from unreliable informants. In Experiment 1, children were presented with previously accurate and inaccurate informants who presented conflicting names for novel objects. 4-year-olds-but not 3-year-olds-predicted whether an informant would be accurate in the future, sought, and endorsed information from the accurate over the inaccurate informant. In Experiment 2, both age groups displayed trust in knowledgeable over ignorant speakers. In Experiment 3, children extended selective trust when learning both verbal and nonverbal information. These experiments demonstrate that preschoolers have a key strategy for assessing the reliability of information. 相似文献
15.
David H. Uttal 《Child development》1996,67(6):2763-2779
Young children have performed poorly in spatial tasks that require the scaling and reconstruction of a configuration. The present research investigated whether or not children's reconstructions nevertheless preserved the relative positions of objects within the configuration. In Experiment 1, preschoolers (ages 4 and 5), young elementary school children (ages 6 and 7), and adults were asked to reconstruct symmetric configurations of six objects that were depicted on simple maps of an empty room. Most subjects preserved the overall configuration of objects, but preschoolers placed the objects far from the correct locations. Many of the preschoolers' reconstructions contained systematic transformations; many reconstructions were off-center and too small or too large. In Experiment 2, the configurations were asymmetric, and preschoolers performed substantially worse than in Experiment 1. Experiment 3 demonstrated that preschoolers could reconstruct the asymmetric configurations when scaling was not required. Taken together, the results reveal that even young children can represent and transform an entire configuration of objects. At the same time, the results reveal important developmental differences. 相似文献
16.
Brenda Hannon 《Learning and Instruction》2012,22(5):299-310
Definitions of related concepts (e.g., genotype–phenotype) are prevalent in introductory classes. Consequently, it is important that educators and students know which strategy(s) work best for learning them. This study showed that a new comparative elaboration strategy, called differential-associative processing, was better for learning definitions of related concepts than was an integrative elaborative strategy, called example elaboration. This outcome occurred even though example elaboration was administered in a naturalistic way (Experiment 1) and students spent more time in the example elaboration condition learning (Experiments 1, 2, 3), and generating pieces of information about the concepts (Experiments 2 and 3). Further, with unrelated concepts (morpheme-fluid intelligence), performance was similar regardless if students used differential-associative processing or example elaboration (Experiment 3). Taken as a whole, these results suggest that differential-associative processing is better than example elaboration for learning definitions of related concepts and is as good as example elaboration for learning definitions of unrelated concepts. 相似文献
17.
The ability of 6-month-old infants to remember a functional category acquired in a specific context was assessed in 3 experiments via an operant procedure in which infants learned to perform a specific action (a footkick) to activate an object suspended before them. In Experiment 1, infants trained with different exemplars in the same context transferred responding to a novel exemplar in the same but not a different context 24 hours later. Experiment 2 revealed that infants' reactivated memory of category training remained intact and context-specific after 3 weeks. In Experiment 3, a novel category exemplar was able to reactivate the forgotten memory of category training only in the encoding context. At 6 months, information about the place where categories are constructed is prerequisite for retrieval of a category concept from long-term memory. This requirement insures that early category concepts remain stable over relatively long periods. 相似文献
18.
Hong-Yu Cheng Shu-Qiang Zhang 《European Journal of Psychology of Education - EJPE》2017,32(2):271-288
The purpose of this study was to investigate whether and how high school students’ cognitive tendencies in holistic/analytic style relate to their active or passive behavioral patterns observed in the classroom. It was speculated that academic intrinsic motivation might play the role as a moderator and learning approach (the structure-oriented approach versus the depth-oriented approach) might function as a mediator in the effects of holistic/analytic style on classroom learning behaviors. A sample of 1065 high school students in China were assessed in classroom learning behavior, holistic/analytic style, learning approach, and academic intrinsic motivation via the use of relevant measures. Results indicated that holistic style and analytic style were significant predictors of classroom learning behavior. The study also revealed significant moderation effects of intrinsic motivation and significant mediation effects of learning approach. Academic intrinsic motivation and learning approach were proven to be two relevant variables in unraveling the influence of holistic/analytic style on students’ behavioral performances in the classroom. 相似文献
19.
Kiewra Kenneth A. Kauffman Douglas F. Robinson Daniel H. Dubois Nelson F. Staley Richard K. 《Instructional Science》1999,27(5):373-401
Three experiments compared the learning potential of text versus outline and matrix displays. In Experiments 1 and 2, college students read or heard a passage about fish and then studied the text, an outline, or a matrix. In Experiment 3, students heard a passage about wildcats, and then studied text, outline, or matrix displays. In all experiments, the text, outline, and matrix formats were informationally equivalent. However, the two-dimensional matrix appeared more computationally efficient than the linear organized text or outline because it (a) positioned related information about fish or wildcats in closer proximity so that local relations within a single category (such as size) were learned, and (b) organized information spatially so that global relations across categories (such as size and diet) were learned. The learning potential of text, outline, and matrix displays was also examined in combination with variations in thematic organization, amount of study time, and time of testing. The most important and consistent findings were that (a) outline and matrix displays produced greater relational learning than the text, and (b) matrix displays produced greater relational learning than outlines. 相似文献
20.
Tolerance to an environmental cold challenge in rats is eliminated when cold exposure occurs in a context different from the adaptation context, indicating that learning mechanisms play a role in thermoregulation (Riccio, MacArdy, & Kissinger, 1991). This finding, analogous to outcomes obtained with drug tolerance, was investigated in the present study. Experiment 1 demonstrated that a change in both proximal and distal contextual cues disrupts an established cold adaptation, an outcome consistent with the view that associative processes contribute to the tolerance. In Experiment 2, although cold tolerance persisted over a 7-day retention interval, the disruption of tolerance by a shift in context was attenuated with the delay of testing. This finding suggests that the precise stimulus attributes of the context were forgotten over the interval. Experiment 3 demonstrated that cold-tolerance disruption is due to the actual change in context and not to novelty of the test context. Experiment 4 showed that changing the context associated with each cold exposure impaired the development of tolerance. The results of these experiments provide additional evidence that cold tolerance is regulated at least partially by associative learning processes. 相似文献