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1.
If Whitehead is right, science teachers who try to increase student interest by making the science they teach more pure and by covering more material are going about their work in just the wrong way. Science, for purposes of precision in measurement, translates the dynamic world of feeling and force, of causal efficacy (for example, the San Francisco earthquake), into a static representation spatialized and given presentational immediacy (for example, the Richter scale). But notice that the Richter scale isn't very interesting (even as abstract art) apart from its connection, via symbolic reference, to the earthquake. Such reference is essential to give both a sense of reality and a feeling of interes to the subject, but it makes the science less pure, and it takes more time to cover the material. An example of teaching pure and impure formal logic is given as a case study.  相似文献   

2.
The errors made when high-school students locate reflections in horizontal, vertical or slanting mirrors were examined. A questionnaire consisting of thirty-six perspective drawings, each portraying an upright transparent cube containing a two-sided mirror, was given to 394 Australian students from grades 7, 9 and 11. On a corner, an edge, or a face of each cube was drawn either a point or a straight-line segment. The task was to draw its image (reflection). Analysis of errors revealed a strong tendency towards horizontal or vertical sliding, suggesting that the edges of the cube act in much the same way as a horizontal-vertical background grid does in the two-dimensional case.  相似文献   

3.
Three teaching designs are offered. They were developed for 12 to 16 year old pupils taking into account their personal differences in terms of gender (in Making Up the Cube), culture (in Mecca), knowledge, and use of calculators in The integrating calculator. The designs concern the representation of three-dimensional objects in the plane, directions and great circles on the sphere, and exploration of the integrating calculator.  相似文献   

4.
The study examined the preferred and actual homework styles of 272 seventh graders (134 males and 138 females) who were characterized by (1) three levels of selfperceived homework achievement, (2) three levels of academic achievement, and (3) three levels of homework achievement. Consistencies and differences in the distinguishing components were found within and between the different types of achievement. Although different patterns of distinguishing components emerged between preferred and actual homework styles, there were remarkable consistencies between them that distinguished the achievement levels. In general, high achievers were more self, parent, and teachermotivated and persistent, organized their homework in some order, preferred or did homework in a bright home environment and by themselves, and did better with specific instructions, when compared with low achievers. However, neither preferred nor actual perceptual preferences distinguished the levels of achievement. In both preferred and actual situations, students in the high homework achievement group were more parent-motivated than those in the low homework achievement group, demonstrating the importance of parental involvement in the home learning environment.  相似文献   

5.
Educational provision in Kurdistan (embracing parts of Iran, Iraq, Syria and Turkey) violates most of the language-in-education requirements of international law. The same is true for Kurds in diaspora in most parts of the world. Linguistic and cultural genocide is attempted, with the tacit complicity of the West. The future of Kurdish education depends to a large extent on the political situation in the Middle East. Political solutions are needed before educational problems can be tackled. Within international law, a new interpretation by the UN Human Rights Committee of Article 27 in the International Convenant on Civil and Political Rights (UN 1986) might give grounds for hope for the future.
Zusammenfassung Bildungsmöglichkeiten in Kurdistan (einschließlich Teilen Irans, Iraks, Syriens und der Türkei) entsprechen nicht den internationalen Forderungen zur Sprachpolitik in der Bildung. Das gleiche gilt für Diaspora Kurden in den meisten Teilen der Welt. Mit stillschweigender Übereinkunft des Westen wird der linguistische und kulturelle Massenmord angestrebt. Die Zukunft der kurdischen Bildung hängt größtenteils von der politischen Situation im mittleren Osten ab. Bevor jedoch das Bildungsproblem gelöst werden kann, braucht man politische Lösungen. Innerhalb des internationalen Gesetzes könnte eine neue Auslegung des Artikel 27 im Internationalen Convent über zivile und politische Rechte (UN 1968) durch das Menschenrechtskommittee der Vereinten Nationen Hoffnung für die Zukunft bringen.
Resumen La educación prestada en Kurdistán (que comprende partes de Irán, Iraq, Siria y Turquía) viola la mayor parte de las exigencias que el derecho internacional establece en cuanto a la educación en la lengua correspondiente del individuo. Esto también rige para los kurdos, que se encuentran en la diáspora, en muchas partes del mundo. Con ello se intenta un genocidio cultural, con la complicidad tácita del mundo occidental. El futuro de la educación kurda depende en gran medida de la situación política de Oriente Medio. Se requieren soluciones políticas que permitan abordar los problemas de la educación, Dentro del derecho internacional, puede dar lugar a esperanzas una nueva interpretación que el Comité de Derechos Ilumanos de las Naciones Unidas hizo del artículo 27 en el Convenio Internacional de Derechos Civiles y Políticos (UN 1986).
Résumé Les formes d'enseignement dispensé au Kurdistan (partagé entre l'Iran, l'Iraq, la Syrie et al Turquie) violent la plupart des exigences envers les langues dans l'enseignement établies par le droit international. La même constatation est valable pour la diaspora kurde disséminée sur la quasi-totalité de la planète. Il ya a en fait tentative de génocide linguistique et culturel, avec la complicité tacite de l'Occident. L'avenir de l'éducation kurde dépendant dans une large mesure de la situation politique au Moyen-Orient, les problèmes pédagogiques ne peuvent être abordés que si la situation politique est résolue. Dans le adre du droit international, une nouvelle interprétation de l'article 27 de la Convention internationale des droits civils et politiques par le Comité des droits de l'hommes (ONU 1986) pourrait donner un nouvel espoir pour l'avenir.
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6.
The goal of this study was to develop a framework for classifying algebra story problems and to determine observed frequencies for each problem type. A total of 1097 algebra story problems were selected from ten standard algebra textbooks. These are divided into eight families based on the nature of the source formula involved; for example, nearly 300 problems were classified in the time rate family because they were based on the source formula, distance = rate x time or output = rate x time. Each family was divided into problem categories based on the general form of the story line; for example, the time rate family consisted of motion, current, and work categories. Each category was divided into templates based on the specific propositional structure of the problem; for example, there were a dozen templates for motion problems such as overtake, closure, round trip, etc. This article describes the procedure for generating families, categories, and templates and provides frequency counts for each observed template. Implications for fostering productive research and instruction are discussed.This research was supported by grant NIE-G-78-0162 from the National Institute of Education. Requests for reprints should be sent to: Richard E. Mayer, Department of Psychology, University of California, Santa Barbara, CA 93106.  相似文献   

7.
Orson Scott Cards school stories in outer space, Enders Game and Enders Shadow, purportedly occur at the same time and tell the same story, but from the perspectives of two different child protagonists. Scenes in Enders Shadow even reproduce text from Enders Game. Nevertheless, 14 years elapsed between the publications of the two books. This essay brings child studies and exceptionality research to bear on the two novels, analyzing the development of Cards ideology regarding his view of the exceptional child and his view of the nature of heroism in a post-modern world.  相似文献   

8.
European identities may be politonymic, toponymic, ethnomyic or linguonymic (Bromley 1984). Each dimension may affect whether migrant minorities are treated as European, and influence their schooling, integration and rights. Treatment and terminology vary in different states and periods of migration. However, the position for immigrated minorities is that they are still largely seen as workers rather than human beings with equal rights. Lack of success in schools is blamed on the migrants themselves rather than the educational system. This construction of migrants as being deficient is parallel to educational practice which falls within a UN definition of linguistic genocide, and contributes to mis-education. If current efforts in international bodies to codify educational linguistic human rights were to lead to greater support for minorities, this could assist in a redefinition of national identities and a reduction of racism and conflict.
Zusammenfassung Europäische Identitäten können politonym, toponym, ethnonym oder linguonym sein (Bromely 1984). Jede Gruppe kann darauf Einfluß haben, ob Migrantenminderheiten als Europäer behandelt werden und Schulwesen, Integration und Rechte respektiert werden. Noch werden immigrierte Minderheiten jedoch weitgehend als Arbeiter und nicht als Menschen mit gleichen Rechten angesehen. Schulische Mißerfolge werden eher ihnen selbst als dem Bildungssystem angelastet. Diese Darstellung von Migranten als defizitär entspricht derjenigen Handlungsweise im Bildungsbereich, welche unter die Kategorie des linguistischen Genozids definiert wird und welche zu einer mis-education beiträgt. Wenn gegenwärtige Bemühungen internationaler Gremien um die Kodifizierung der Rechte der Menschen auf ihre Sprache Minderheiten unterstützen, könnte dies zu einer Umdefinition nationaler Identitäten und einer Reduzierung von Rassismus und Konflikten führen.
Resumen Las identidades de los Europeos pueden ser politonímicas, toponímicas, etnomímicas o linguonímicas (Bromley 1984). Cada una de estas dimensiones puede influir en que minorías de inmigrantes scan tratadas de Europeos y con ello en su educación escolar, en su integración y en sus derechos. El tratamiento y la terminología varían conforme a los períodos y las circunstancias de la inmigración. No obstante, la posición que se adopta frente a las minorías inmigrantes es la de considerarlos en gran medida como trabajadores y no tanto como seres humanos de iguales derechos. La falta de éxito en los estudios se atribuye a los inmigrantes mismos, más que al sistema de educación. Esta consideración de los inmigrantes como inferiores es paralela a una práctica de la educación que cae bajo una definición de la Naciones Unidas de genocidio lingüístico y contribuye a la educación deficiente. Si los esfuerzos actuales que las organizaciones internacionales ponen en codificar los derechos humanos lingüísticos de la educación estuvieran destinados a brindar un mayor apoyo a las minorías, esto podría ayudar a definir con mayor precisión las identidades nacionales y a reducir el racismo y los conflictos.
Résumé Les identités européennes peuvent être politonymiques, toponymiques, ethnonymiques ou linguonymiques (Bromley 1984). Selon leurs affinités avec chacun de ces domaines, les personnes appartenant aux minorités migrantes sont considérées ou non comme européennes, et cela influence leur scolarité, leur intégration et leurs droits. La façon dont ces personnes sont traitées et la terminologie évoluent selon les différentes étapes et périodes de migration. Mais le plus souvent, les minorités immigrantes sont encore davantage considérées comme des travailleurs que comme des personnes bénéficiant des mêmes droits. Les échecs scolaires sont mis sur le compte des migrants eux-mêmes et non sur celui du système éducatif. Le fait que l'on considère les migrants comme inférieurs se reflète dans une pratique éducative que les Nations Unies appellent génocide linguistique et se traduit par une éducation inadéquate. Si les efforts actuels de la part des institutions internationales pour codifier les droits de l'homme en matière de pédagogie linguistique apportaient un plus grand soutien aux minorités, cela contribuerait à donner une rédéfinition des identités nationales et à réduire le racisme et les conflits.
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9.
The education system is widely perceived to be functioning poorly, and this paper argues that there is in fact a deep crisis caused by the gap between the system and the changing world that surrounds it. Post-modern conditions stress the production of information rather than the productivity of land or capital, and a relativistic world-view rather than adherence to a fixed religion or ideology, which in turn gives rise to pluralism and shifting social frameworks. At the same time, the pursuit of Truth is no longer seen as the highest goal in life, and the possession of proof of education is no longer a guarantee of access to the Good Life. Educational institutions are dysfunctional because they remain wedded to outmoded parameters in their aims, activities, structures, methods and perceptions of their clientele. Through a wide-ranging review of recent conceptual debate and assessment of social trends, the paper explores the implications of radical contemporary changes in the parameters: the search for a new paradigm of education has only just begun.
Zusammenfassung Das Bildungssystem wird weitgehend als unzulänglich betrachtet, und dieser Artikel argumentiert dahingehend, daß es in der Tat eine tiefgreifende Krise gibt, die durch die Kluft zwischen dem System und der sich ändernden Welt um es herum ist. Postmoderne Bedingungen legen eher Wert auf die Erstellung von Informationen als auf die Produktivität von Land oder Kapital. Man zieht eine relativistische Weltanschauung einer festgelegten Religion oder Ideologie vor, die wiederum Pluralismus und sich ändernde soziale Rahmenbedingungen fördert. Gleichzeitig wird die Suche nach der Wahrheit nicht länger als oberstes Ziel im Leben angesehen und der Besitz von Bildungsnachweisen ist nicht länger eine Garantie für ein gutes Leben. Bildungsinstitutionen funktionieren nicht mehr, weil sie in ihren Zielen, Aktivitäten, Strukturen, Methoden und Wahrnehmungen ihrer Zielen, Aktivitäten, Strukturen, Methoden und Wahrnehmungen ihrer Zielgruppen mit unzeitgemäßen Normen verknüpft sind. Mittels eines weitreichenden überblicks über jüngste Debatten über Konzepte und die Einschätzung sozialer Trends, untersucht der Artikel die Auswirkungen radikaler zeitgenössischer Anderungen der Normen; die Suche nach einem neuen Paradigma der Bildung hat gerade erst begonnen.
Resumen Hay una percepción general de que el funcionamiento del sistema de educación es deficiente, y este trabajo sostiene que, efectivamente, se produce una profunda crisis causada por la brecha existente entre el sistema y el mundo cambiante que lo rodea. Las condiciones postmodernistas ponen énfasis en la producción de informaciones más que en la productividad de la tierra o del capital, y en una óptica del mundo relativista más que en la adhesión a una religión o ideología fija, lo que por su parte da origen al pluralismo y a sistemas sociales cambiantes. Al mismo tiempo, la busca de la Verdad ya no es considerada como la meta más importante en la vida, y la titularidad de pruebas de formación ya no garantiza el acceso a la Buena Vida. Las instituciones de la educación muestran una disfunción porque aún se atienen a parámetros obsoletos en cuanto a objetivos, actividades, estructuras, métodos y percepciones de su clientela. A través de una amplia reseña de debates conceptuales recientes y de la valoración de tendencias sociales, el trabajo explora las implicaciones que los cambios radicales contemporáneos tienen en los parámetros; la busca de un nuevo paradigma de educaión solamente acaba de comenzar.
Résumé Le système éducatif a la réputation largement répandue de mal fonctionner, et l'article expose qu'il existe en effet une crise profonde due à l'écart entre le système d'éducation et le monde en évolution qui l'entoure. Les conditions de vie post-modernes font passer au premier plan la production de l'information à la place de la productivité de la terre et du capital, et une vision du monde relativiste remplace l'adhésion à une religion ou une idéologie fixe, qui à son tour engendre le pluralisme et la modification des structures sociales. Parallèlement, la recherche de la vérité n'est plus le but suprême dans la vie, et la détention d'une preuve d'éducation n'est plus une garantie d'accès à une vie réussie. Le dysfonctionnement des institutions éducatives réside donc dans leur attachement obstiné à des modèles périmés quant à leurs objectifs, leurs activités, leurs structures, leurs méthodes et leur vision de la clientèle. Sur la base d'une vaste étude sur le récent débat conceptuel et une évaluation des tendances sociales, l'article analyse les conséquences des changements radicaux contemporains sur ces modèles: la recherche d'un nouveau type d'éducation ne fait que commencer.
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10.
The aim of this study was to identify importantfactors that influence career decisionmaking of highschool students in Kenya. The study indicates thatrural students tend to seek help from parents andteachers more than urban students, and that parents,more than career teachers, play a major role in thecareer decision-making of students. Findings alsoindicate that gender, selfconcept and vocationalstereotyping are among the major factors thatinfluence career decisions of high school students inKenya.  相似文献   

11.
Insofar as the basic concepts (in particular, meaning, interpretation, text) and theses of Martin Eger's hermeneutics of the sciences are intelligible they are not distinctive, and insofar as they are distinctive they are unintelligible and/or lack backup arguments. Ambiguity characterises much of the argument. James Cushing's elaboration of hermeneutics, using the history of quantum mechanics as an illustration of its supposed strengths, does nothing to rescue the position against the criticisms here levelled at Martin Eger's formulations of it.  相似文献   

12.
Torsten Husén 《Interchange》1992,23(1-2):11-18
The university's mission of serving as a fortress for freedom of speech, inquiry, and criticism of established truths is inextricably connected with democracy. Such a mission can be pursued only in a climate of genuine political and academic freedom. Three other aspects of democracy in the university are discussed: equality of access, university governance, and the public utility of the university. It is argued that equal representation or one man one vote cannot be applied in university governance because it comes into conflict with the notion of competence—a conflict that cannot be resolved by taking votes. Interest groups inside and outside of the university cannot be allowed to interfere with the free pursuit of knowledge. The internal audit, that is, peer review (by, ultimately, the international community of scholars) has to take precedence over vertical review by government bureaucracy.  相似文献   

13.
The current school reform movement, with its emphasis on teacher professionalism, teacher empowerment, and shared decision making, has challenged teachers unions to develop more collegial relations with school boards. Bob Chase, president of the National Education Association, has called for the union to reinvent itself and to assume responsibility for improving school quality and the quality of the teaching force. This article discusses the development of teachers unions in the 1960s as adversaries of school boards. From the beginning the unions adopted an industrial model of labor relations, one tailored for factories and assembly lines rather than school environments. Today, there are signs that teachers unions are accepting Bob Chases vision of a more professional union, one in which union leaders and school leaders can become public allies in the struggle to improve schools.  相似文献   

14.
The ethnomethodological programme of studies of work is drawn on to provide a general framework within which we might develop ways to undertake thein situ analysis of the competencies which constitute student learning activities. The objective of such research is to describe the locally managed and temporally organised nature of student learning work. Emphasis is placed on the development of methods of investigation which will enable us to describe the whatness of the work from within the setting of that work's accomplishment. The twin conceptions of the visibility and sequential order of student activities are discussed in detail. The implications of this approach for the notion of student learning are also examined.  相似文献   

15.
The effect of district strategies for improving high-stakes test scores on science teachers practice is explored in case studies of six middle schools in six Massachusetts districts. At each school, science teachers, curriculum coordinators, principals, and superintendents shared their strategies for raising scores, their attitudes towards the test, the changes that they were implementing in their curriculum and pedagogical approaches, and the effects that the test was having on staff and on students. Results from these case studies suggest that districts chose markedly different strategies for raising scores on high stakes tests, and that the approaches taken by districts influenced the nature of pedagogical and curriculum changes in the classroom. District strategies for raising scores that were complementary to the districts prior vision of science reform tended to cause less teacher resentment towards the test than strategies that departed from previously adopted goals. Differing effects on teachers in socio-economically advantaged, middle, and challenged districts are discussed.  相似文献   

16.
Samples of undergraduates from 30 colleges and universities responded in two ways to statements about how often they had engaged in various activities: first by indicating never, occasionally, often, or very often, and second by indicating the number of times they had engaged in the activity. Comparisons of the two sets of responses indicates that: (1) there are wide individual differences in the meaning attributed to each response category; (2) despite individual differences, the group data show clear modal differences between occasionally and often and between often and very often; (3) the median difference in the meaning of each of the response categories is very small between one institution and the next and between types of institutions; and (4) based on the present data, there is no compelling need to develop separate norms for different types of institutions.Presented at the 1981 Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Association, April 13–17, Los Angeles.  相似文献   

17.
This paper examines the impact of two major approaches to literacy programs — the linguistic and the sociolinguistic. The principal difference between the two perspectives is that the linguistic negates the importance of sociological and ethnographic factors in a person's attaining literacy, while the sociolinguistic magnifies these influences. From one viewpoint, literacy is seen as cracking a linguistic code, while from the other, in Freire's (1987) phrasing, reading the world is necessary before reading the word. Academic/cultural literacy and functional literacy are examined as types affiliated with the linguistic perspective. Types of ethnographic literacy programs are analyzed to show their sociolinguistic orientation. The last section of the paper examines the language planning consequences of which perspective a country adopts and focuses on some recent literacy programs in Peru which incorporate elements of both the linguistic and sociolinguistic perspectives.
Zusammenfassung Dieser Artikel untersucht den Einfluß zweier Ansätze zu Alphabetisierungsprogrammen — den linguistischen und den soziolinguistischen. Der Hauptunterschied zwischen beiden Perspektiven liegt darin, daß die linguistische die Bedeutung soziologischer und ethnologischer Faktoren beim lernen verneint, während die soziolinguistische Perspektive diese Einflüsse unterstreicht. Eine Seite versteht unter Lese- und Schreibfähigkeit die Lösung eines linguistischen Codes, während die andere Seite mit Freires (1987) Worten gesprochen, Lesen der Welt in seiner Wichtigkeit vor Lesen des Wortes stellt. Akademische/kulturelle Schreib-u. Lesefähigkeit und funktionelle Schreib- u. Lesefähigkeit werden als Beispiele untersucht, die eng mit der linguistischen Perspektive verbunden sind. Ethnographische Alphabetisierungsprogramme werden in ihrer soziolinguistischen Orientierung analysiert. Der letzte Teil des Artikels setzt sich mit den Folgen für Sprachprogramme auseinander, in Bezug zur eingenommenen Perspektive. Der Artikel konzentriert sich auf einige Alphabetisierungsprogramme in Peru, die beide Perspektiven einbeziehen.
Resumen El trabajo examina el impacto de dos importantes enfoques de programas de alfabetización: el lingüístico y el sociolingüístico. La principal diferencia entre ambas ópticas reside en que la lingüística niega la importancia que revisten los factores sociológicos y etnográficos para la persona que está aprendiendo a leer y a escribir, mientras que la sociolingüística magnifica estas influencias. Desde un punto de vista, la alfabetización es considerada como la solución del código lingüístico, mientras que desde el otro, según las palabras de Freire (1987), se sostiene que antes de reading the word (leer la palabra) será necesario reading the world (interpretar el mundo). Estudia la alfabetización académico-cultural y la alfabetización funcional como disciplinas asociadas a la óptica de la lingüística. Analiza tipos de programas etnográficos de alfabetización para mostrar su orientación sociolingüístca. La última parte del trabajo examina las consecuencias de la planificación del lenguaje según la perspectiva que un país adopta, y enfoca algunos programas de alfabetización recientes del Perú, que incorporan elementos tanto de la óptica lingüística como de la sociolingüístic.
Résumé Cet article étudie l'incidence des deux principaux modes d'approche des programmes d'alphabétistion, l'un linguistique et l'autre sociolinguistique. La différence principale entre ces deux perspectives est la suivante: La linguistique nie l'importance des facteurs sociologiques et ethnographiques dans le processus d'alphabétisation d'une personne, alors que la sociolinguistique amplifie ces facteurs d'influence. La première considère l'alphabétisation comme le décryptage d'un code linguistique, pour la seconde, selon l'expression de Freire (1987), il faut lire le monde avant de lire le mot. Les formes d'alphabétisation dites académique, culturelle et fonctionnelle sont présentées comme appartenant à l'optique linguistique. Des programmes d'alphabétisation ethnographique sont également examinés pour en montrer l'orientation sociolinguistique. La dernière partie de l'article analyse les conséquences sur la planification linguistique quand un pays adopte l'une ou l'autre conception, et termine par la présentation de quelques récents programmes d'alphabétisation au Pérou, qui intègrent des éléments à la fois linguistiques et sociolinguistiques.
— . , , - . , , , Freire () 1987 , . - . , - . , , , - .
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18.
The term certification, as used in discussions concerning higher education, is clarified and a distinction made between terminal awards which do have a genuine certifying effect in the sense of procuring admission to a profession and those which do not. Institutions wishing to increase the value of the certifying effect of their awards, seek to do this by stimulating applications for entry to their institution. The longer the queue at the gate the greater the prestige of the terminal award. The ability to influence the certifying effect of an award does not, however, lie with the teaching institutions alone; business, the employers and the professions can, and increasingly do, determine the relative value of awards and of different ways of preparing for the exercise of a particular profession. The case of the business schools in France is described to illustrate how teaching institutions once they are established seek to increase the certifying effect of the diplomas they award by actually reducing the number of graduates. The numerus clausus, as applied to medical schools, provides another example of the same phenomenon. Such strategies lead to what the author describes as consumer effect. Once admittance to a prestige institution has been gained, entry to a position of influence and possibly affluence, is more or less assured. Students in such institutions, in both capitalist and communist countries, have exploited this by persuading teaching staff to acquiesce in a reduction of the demands made by the course, though some directors of institutions have begun to respond by failing more students, seeking to re-establish positions surrendered in the days of student unrest and by these and other means seeking to reduce consumer effect. Teacher training colleges provide an interesting example of institutions having a low but certain certifying effect, producing a high consumer effect. The possibility of deriving a general theory from the proposition put forward in the article is discussed.This is an improved version of an article published earlier in French: Effet certifiant et effet clientèle. Quelques remarques sur les stratégies des institutions d'enseignement supérieur dans les pays développés, ESPRIT, nov./dec. 1978. Translation: Sylvia Collot.  相似文献   

19.
There are cases in which a high form of a language is taught and used in formal situations, but linguistic variation is also caused by geography, ethnicity and socioeconomic class. Certain variants are regarded as inferior and restricted in expressive capacity, and are disadvantageous. The paper suggests that it is possible to map each person's linguistic identity in two dimensions: the number of languages spoken, and the situation-specific variants of each language. Further, it is argued that the distance between a low variant and a high standard form of a language may present to the low learner of a standardized mother tongue a barrier just as great as that posed by the learning of a related foreign language to a speaker of the high variant. It is proposed that greater tolerance be exercised in acceptance of variation and in recognition of linguistic identity, so that this can be built on in the necessary and desirable expansion of linguistic competence, rather than being devalued. The relevance of the communicative approach to language teaching is touched on.
Zusammenfassung Es gibt Fälle, in denen eine hohe Form einer Sprache gelehrt und in formellen Situationen gebraucht wird, aber linguistische Veränderungen werden auch durch Geographie, ethnische Identität und sozialkonomische Klassen hervorgerufen. Gewsse Varianten gelten hinsichtlich ihres Ausdrucksvermögens als unterlegen und restriktiv und sind unvorteilhaft. In dem Artikel wird vorgeschlagen, die linguistische Identität jedes Einzelnen in zwei Dimensionen darzustellen: die Anzahl der gesprochenen Sprachen und die situationsspezifische Variante jeder Sprache. Weiterhin wird argumentiert, daß die Distanz zwischen einer niedrigen Variante und einer hohen Standardform einer Sprache für den niedrigen Lernenden einer standardisierten Muttersprache ebenso schwierig ist wie das Erlernen einer verwandten ausländischen Sprache für denjenigen, der die hohe Form spricht. Es wird vorgeschlagen, größere Toleranz durch Akzeptieren der Variation und Anerkennung der linguistischen Identität zu üben, so daß man darauf die notwendige und wünschenswerte Erweiterung der linguistischen Fähigkeit aufbauen kann anstatt sie zu entwerten. Die Relevanz des kommunikativen Ansatzes zum Unterrichten einer Sprache wird kurz behandelt.
Résumé Il existe des cas où une haute forme d'une langue est enseignée et utilisée dans des situations formelles, mais la différentiation est causée également par la géographie, l'ethnicité et la classe socioéconomique. Certaines variantes sont considérées inférieures, d'une capacité expressive limitée, et sont désavantageuses. L'article suggère qu'il est possible de tracer l'identité linguistique de chacun dans deux dimensions: le nombre de langues parlées, et les variantes de chaque langue reliées à des situations spécifiques. En plus, on raisonne que la distance entre une variante basse d'une langue et la haute forme standard peut présenter à l'apprenant, ayant la forme basse d'une langue maternelle standardisée, une barrière aussi grande que celle qui se dresse devant celui qui parle la variante haute et qui apprend une langue étrangère apparentée. On propose donc qu'une tolérance plus large soit exercée en acceptant la variation et en reconnaissant l'identité linguistique, afin que cette dernière serve de fondation pour l'élargissement nécessaire et souhaitable des compétences linguistiques, plutôt que d'être dévalorisée. La relevance de l'approche communicative à l'enseignement des langues est mentionnée.
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20.
Large scale computer-assisted instruction systems generally impose severe constraints upon the demands that individual users may make. Nevertheless, it is possible to overcome these problems and a program is described which teaches students how to fly a specific maneuver through real-time simulation of the flight of a student-controlled airplane. This is achieved in spite of the fact that the student is flying his plane through the use of a manually controlled analog input device. Both computational and educational implications are discussed.Contractual support for this work was provided in part by the Life Sciences Program Air Force Office of Scientific Research, Contract number F44620-70-C-0105. Dr. Charles Hutchinson was the scientific monitor of the contract.  相似文献   

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