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1.
Sequence learning in pigeons was studied in asimultaneous chaining paradigm: all stimuli and the opportunity to respond to each stimulus were available simultaneously. In contrast to the traditionalsuccessive chaining paradigm, a simultaneous chaining paradigm provides no differential feedback following each response (except the last). Subjects were first trained to perform on sequences of two (AB), then three (ABC), and then four colors (ABCD). Performance greatly exceeded that predicted by models of random choice. Generalization to novel arrays of three and four colors was complete. After training with a four-color sequence, the subjects were tested with subsequences consisting of all possible combinations of two and three of the four training colors (e.g., BD, AD, BC, ACD, BCD, etc.). The successful completion of these subsequences showed that the organization of the original sequence did not entail overt pecks to successive elements of that sequence. That subjects can respond accurately on nonadjacent subsets is not readily explained by a chaining theory, or by any theory that assumes that responding to element n provides a cue for responding to element n+1. 相似文献
2.
We studied behavioral flexibility, or the ability to modify one’s behavior in accordance with the changing environment, in pigeons using a reversal-learning paradigm. In two experiments, each session consisted of a series of five-trial sequences involving a simple simultaneous color discrimination in which a reversal could occur during each sequence. The ideal strategy would be to start each sequence with a choice of S1 (the first correct stimulus) until it was no longer correct, and then to switch to S2 (the second correct stimulus), thus utilizing cues provided by local reinforcement (feedback from the preceding trial). In both experiments, subjects showed little evidence of using local reinforcement cues, but instead used the mean probabilities of reinforcement for S1 and S2 on each trial within each sequence. That is, subjects showed remarkably similar behavior, regardless of where (or, in Exp. 2, whether) a reversal occurred during a given sequence. Therefore, subjects appeared to be relatively insensitive to the consequences of responses (local feedback) and were not able to maximize reinforcement. The fact that pigeons did not use the more optimal feedback afforded by recent reinforcement contingencies to maximize their reinforcement has implications for their use of flexible response strategies under reversal-learning conditions. 相似文献
3.
Gary D. Phye 《Contemporary educational psychology》1979,4(4):381-394
From a cognitive perspective, informative feedback is assumed to be confirmatory or corrective. However, feedback is not always effective and errors persist. In cases where errors persist, an analysis of errors as well as correct responses is recommended in order to better understand the processing of informative feedback. A model of multiple-choice processing is introduced to provide the context for a consideration of the role of error analysis. Data from experiment 1 demonstrate the use of semantic retrieval cues in multiple-choice performance. While informative feedback improves post-test performance, it is difficult to demonstrate a differential effect for type of feedback. Experiment 2 suggests a threshold effect for informative feedback. Information beyond that which is necessary for the confirmation of a correct response and/or the correction of an error has a deleterious effect on post-test performance. Error analysis indicated a disproportionate number of perseverative errors when the use of a retrieval process was not required at post-test. 相似文献
4.
Most theories predict that when people indicate that they are highly confident they are producing their strongest responses.
Hence, if such a high confidence response is in error it should be overwritten only with great difficulty. In contrast to
this prediction, we have found that people easily correct erroneous responses to general information questions endorsed as
correct with high-confidence, so long as the correct answer is given as feedback. Three potential explanations for this unexpected
hypercorrection effect are summarized. The explanation that is tested here, in two experiments, is that after a person commits
a high-confidence error the correct answer feedback, being surprising or unexpected, is given more attention than is accorded
to the feedback to low-confidence errors. This enhanced attentional capture leads to better memory. In both experiments, a
tone detection task was presented concurrently with the corrective feedback to assess the attentional capture of feedback
stimuli. In both, tone detection was selectively impaired during the feedback to high confidence errors. It was also negatively
related to final performance, indicating that the attention not devoted to the tone detection was effectively engaged by the
corrective feedback. These data support the attentional explanation of the high-confidence hypercorrection effect. 相似文献
5.
Lanny Fields 《Learning & behavior》2018,46(1):79-88
Using trial-and-error training, eight pigeons did not learn to discriminate between 45° and 135° lines, but did learn to discriminate between red and green colors. Control by line tilt was induced by stimulus fading that did not include reinforcement while fading out the colors. After establishing the red–green discrimination, low-intensity lines were superimposed on colors and were gradually faded in. All of this was done using reinforcement. At the end of the line fade-in, the lines had not acquired control of responding. Finally, color intensity was gradually faded out in the absence of reinforcement, and the lines acquired discriminative control by six of the eight pigeons. Thus, reinforcement during the color fade-out was not necessary for the acquisition of discriminative control by the lines during fading. Acquisition of control by lines was attributed to overshadowing, the reduction of stimulus blocking by generalization, and the evocation of correct responding by the colors while the participants were attending to the lines. This last process was also responsible for the induction of discriminative control during sensory preconditioning, higher order conditioning, and response transfer in equivalence classes. Errors, however, were not correlated with discrimination learning during stimulus fading. Finally, transfer of control occurred very quickly with or without errors. 相似文献
6.
Kelly J. Stanhope 《Learning & behavior》1989,17(3):311-321
A dissociation between the effect of reinforcer type and response strength on the force of the pigeon’s keypeck response was shown in three experiments. In Experiment 1, pigeons were trained to peck two conditioned stimuli, one paired with water and another paired with grain. The pigeons made more forceful pecks for grain than for water and also showed a tendency, albeit an unreliable one, to respond on a higher percentage of food trials than water trials. In Experiment 2, the pigeons from Experiment 1 were satiated with either food or water and were then presented with the two conditioned stimuli in an extinction test. It was found that, regardless of the drive state, the pigeons made more forceful pecks to the stimulus that predicted food than to the stimulus that predicted water. In the thirsty group, however, this difference in force was not accompanied by a difference in the percentage of trials with a response. In Experiment 3, pigeons trained with a single reinforcer pecked more often on instrumentally reinforced trials than on Pavlovian conditioning trials, but there was no difference in the force of the pecks. Taken together, these results imply that differences in response strength cannot account for the difference between the force of food- and water-reinforced pecks. Instead, stimulus-substitution theory may provide the best account of the topography of the two types of pecks. 相似文献
7.
In two experiments, immediate feedback defined as feedback following the completion of a 40-item multiple-choice test and delayed feedback (received 48 hr later) were examined in a simulated classroom situation with college students. As defined, delayed feedback was not superior to immediate feedback, as would be predicted by the delayed retention effect. Also, feedback in the form of correct answer only was superior to correct answer plus distractors lending partial support to the frequency theory of recognition memory. In addition to not finding the delayed retention effect, an analysis of errors in experiment two did not support the interference—perseveration hypothesis as an explanation for the type of error committed following immediate feedback. 相似文献
8.
Pigeons were given successive discrimination training in which pecking during a choice period when the key was white was either reinforced or not, depending upon the prior presence or absence of a discriminative stimulus, which was a two-element serial compound. The compound consisted of a keylight and food, with food presented second or first in a forward or backward pairing for different groups of pigeons. In Experiment 1, the sequence was an S+ indicating reinforced trials, while in Experiment 2, the sequence was an S? indicating nonreinforced trials. Following acquisition of discriminated operant behavior, a sequence generalization test was administered during which all possible orders of the two stimuli were presented on test trials prior to the onset of the choice period. The results showed that food overshadowed stimulus control by the color of the light on the key on the sequence-generalization test, independently of whether food was presented first or second during training and independently of whether food was associated with reinforcement or nonreinforcement. The similarity of results for the two experiments suggests that overshadowing occurs independently of whether the compound is a discriminative stimulus for reinforcement or nonreinforcement. Simultaneous presentation of elements of a compound stimulus is not necessary for overshadowing because the phenomenon was captured with sequentially presented stimuli. 相似文献
9.
Barry Schwartz 《Learning & behavior》1973,1(3):164-166
Response key illuminations were followed by food delivery or shock, and keypecks were programmed to prevent the occurrence of whichever stimulus was scheduled. At high shock intensity, pigeons did not peck: at low shock intensity, pigeons pecked in about half of the trials. When different key colors signaled food and shock trials, pigeons pecked on food trials, thus preventing food delivery, but not on shock trials, thus failing to avoid shock delivery. That pecks occurred despite the fact that they avoided food but did not occur when they avoided shock is taken as evidence that the keypeck is frequently governed by biological predispositions, and not by its consequences. 相似文献
10.
In Experiment 1, three food-deprived pigeons received trials that began with red or green illumination of the center pecking key. Two or four pecks on this sample key turned it off and initiated a 0- to 10-sec delay. Following the delay, the two outer comparison keys were illuminated, one with red and one with green light. In one condition, a single peck on either of these keys turned the other key off and produced either grain reinforcement (if the comparison that was pecked matched the preceding sample) or the intertrial interval (if it did not match). In other conditions, 3 or 15 additional pecks were required to produce reinforcement or the intertrial interval. The frequency of pecking the matching comparison stimulus (matching accuracy) decreased as the delay increased, increased as the sample ratio was increased, and decreased as the comparison ratio was increased. The results of Experiment 2 suggested that higher comparison ratios adversely affect matching accuracy primarily by delaying reinforcement for choosing the correct comparison. The results of Experiment 3, in which delay of reinforcement for choosing the matching comparison was manipulated, confirmed that delayed reinforcement decreases matching accuracy. 相似文献
11.
Pigeons were trained on a two-choice simultaneous discrimination (red vs. green) that reversed midway through each session.
After considerable training, they consistently made both anticipatory errors prior to the reversal and perseverative errors
after the reversal, suggesting that time (or number of trials) into the session served as a cue for reversal. In Experiment
2, to discourage the use of time as a cue, we varied the location of the reversal point within the session such that it occurred
semirandomly after Trial 10, 25, 40, 55, or 70. Pigeons still tended both to anticipate and to perseverate. In Experiment
3, we required 20 pecks to a stimulus on each trial to facilitate memory for the preceding response and sensitivity to local
reinforcement contingencies, but the results were similar to those of Experiment 2. We then tested humans on a similar task
with a constant (Experiment 4) or variable (Experiment 5) reversal location. When the reversal occurred consistently at the
midpoint of the session, humans, like pigeons, showed a tendency to anticipate the reversal; however, they did not show perseverative
errors. When the reversal location varied between sessions, unlike pigeons, humans adopted a win–stay/lose–shift strategy,
making only a single error on the first trial of the reversal. 相似文献
12.
Two groups of pigeons were required to generate a fixed sequence of responses on three keys, for example, middle-left-right. One group received a small food reward (SFood) following each correct response except the terminal one, which was followed by a large food reward. The second group received conditioned reinforcement from an overhead light (SLight) for each correct response, with the terminal correct response followed by both SLight and the large food reward. We manipulated length of sequence (3 or 7 responses) and duration of required interresponse interval (IRI; 1 to 9 sec). SLight contingencies generated more accurate performances than did SFood when sequence length was 3 responses but not when it was 7 responses. IRI duration influenced accuracy under the SLight contingencies but not under SFood. These results show that conditioned reinforcers sometimes generate more accurate sequence learning than do primary reinforcers, and that schedule contigencies influence which type of feedback will optimize performance. The results parallel those from the matching-to-sample and conditional discrimination literature. 相似文献
13.
When the response of pigeons is maintained to a number of stimulus wavelengths, but extinguished to one (S?), the birds peck more rapidly at stimuli near the S? than at more distant stimuli. The present study explores this “dimensional contrast” effect as a function of the number and spacing of test wavelengths. A fixed portion of the wavelength continuum was spanned by 5, 9, 13, or 49 stimuli, which appeared in random sequence behind a standard pecking key. At the end of each 20-sec trial, pecks to test stimuli produced a conditioned reinforcer (sometimes followed by food), while pecks to the S? stimulus produced only darkness. Dimensional contrast “shoulders” developed to test stimuli on either side of the S?; these shoulders were of approximately the same height and wavelength position for all but the 5-stimulus (widely spaced) condition, and were comparable to the original contrast results with 25 stimuli. The results strongly suggest that the extent and locus of contrast shoulders are largely independent of the number and spacing of test stimuli. 相似文献
14.
In 3 experiments, 4-, 5-, and 6-year-olds' ability to sequence events was examined. We hypothesized that children initially construct temporal sequences by relying on the organization of their world knowledge instead of inferring logical relations among actions. In the first experiment, children generated picture sequences of familiar and unfamiliar events in forward and backward order without having seen the pictures in their correct sequence. In the second experiment, children reconstructed previously seen sequences, and in the third experiment, children were shown forward and backward sequences and reconstructed them in the opposite direction. Across experiments, the same pattern of performance was found; familiar events in forward order were the easiest to sequence, then unfamiliar events in forward order, familiar events in backward order, and finally unfamiliar events in backward order. These results are discussed along with other findings suggesting a similar pattern of performance across a wide developmental age span. 相似文献
15.
Rats were exposed for approximately 1 month to a single stimulus mounted on the home cage wall. During discrimination training, half of the Ss had the exposed figure as the positive stimulus and half the exposed figure as the negative stimulus. Control Ss had no pattern mounted on the wall. The results indicate that when the exposed figure was the positive stimulus, the Ss made significantly more errors than the control Ss. but when the exposed figure was the negative stimulus, the Ss made significantly fewer errors. These results are consistent with the exploratory literature, which suggests that exposure to a stimulus will reduce the invitational properties of that stimulus relative to a more novel stimulus and thereby will affect the probability of selecting one stimulus over another, at least for a period of time, in a discrimination task. 相似文献
16.
A report of an experiment to measure the effects of both overt and covert responses to educational stimuli with KCR (knowledge of correct results) feedback provided. In most studies of feedback, KCR (or KR) is given as a consequence of an overt response: Stimulus-Response-Feedback. In the case of a covert response, the student constructs his answer but does not react overtly to the presentation of a stimulus item. Forty Ss were randomly assigned to 1 of 4 groups further divided into 1 control group receiving no feedback and 3 groups receiving information (KCR) according to either overt or covert response patterns. A 25-item multiple-choice test was administered 5 times by means of a terminal consisting of a screen and a teletype. Results showed that the covert paradigm was the most effective. The experiment did not demonstrate that the covert process leads to better performance on a test administered later to measure retention. A tentative explanation for this negative result was that the time interval between the provision of feedback and presentation of the next item was of some relevance. A multiple comparison test revealed that the 3 treatment groups performed better than the control group. 相似文献
17.
Patricia B. Cronin 《Learning & behavior》1980,8(3):352-358
Delayed-reward learning in pigeons was examined using a simultaneous red-green visual discrimination task in which the conditions during the delay interval were varied between groups. The nondifferential group received training in which the stimulus present during the 1-min delay was the same following a peck on the correct and incorrect colors. The other three groups received 1-min delay training in which different stimuli occurred in the delay interval following correct and incorrect choices. The differential group received continuous, differential stimuli during the delay. The reinstatement group received the differential stimuli in the 10 sec immediately following the choice and during the last 10 sec of the delay. The reversedcue group was treated in the same way, except that the 10-sec delay stimulus immediately following an incorrect response was also presented for 10 sec prior to reward on correct choices, and the stimulus following a correct response also occurred 10 sec before nonreward on incorrect choices. Nondifferential birds failed to learn the discrimination, while differential and reinstatement birds learned it readily. The reversed-cue birds learned to choose the incorrect stimulus. Differential and reinstatement birds showed no decrement in performance when the delay was increased to 2 min. These findings suggest that similarity of prereward and postresponse delay stimuli controls choice responding in long-delay learning, a finding compatible with both memorial and conditioned reinforcement interpretations. 相似文献
18.
The present study examined the effect of three modes of feedback on the seriousness of error types committed on a post-test. The measure of seriousness of error types, or wrong rules, indicates to what extent the wrong rules deviate from the right rule. An on-line, free-response, six-item pre-test covering addition of signed numbers was administered to 263 eighth graders. Upon completion of the pre-test, the students were randomly assigned to receive one of the following kinds of feedback to responses to a second six-item test: (a) information about whether or not the response was correct, (b) the correct answer, or (c) the correct rule for solving the problem. The effect of the feedback mode on the seriousness of errors committed on a third six-item test, the post-test, was found to be differential and dependent upon the seriousness of errors committed on the pre-test. 相似文献
19.
David S. Tuber 《Learning & behavior》1986,14(4):421-426
Based upon considerations raised by Soviet research, the role of relative stimulus intensity, or dominance, in the unconditioned stimulus-unconditioned stimulus (US-US) paradigm was investigated under circumstances presumed favorable to the backward conditioned response (CR). Using the classically conditioned forelimb response of the cat, a brief shock (USD delivered to one forepaw preceded a shock (US2) to the opposite forepaw in paired conditioning fashion; subjects in the control group received explicitly unpaired presentations of the stimuli. Conditioning in both the forward and backward directions was evaluated by the appearance of contralateral CRs on test trials to each of the USs. In Experiment 1, a ratio of the intensities between US1 and US2 of 100:80 was used to create a relative dominance in favor of the backward CR. In addition, to evaluate the suggestion that the appearance of the backward CR is retarded in the Pavlovian paradigm, overtraining was provided to a forward conditioning criterion of 200%. In Experiment 2, the cats were exposed to successive reductions in the intensity of US2 to verify manipulations of dominance reportedly involved in the reactivation of a latent backward CR. Although forward conditioning was readily established to USl, there was no evidence of back-ward conditioning to US2 under any of the conditions. 相似文献
20.
In three experiments, groups of albino rats received one strictly simultaneous pairing of a 4-sec auditory conditioned stimulus (CS) and a 4-sec 1-mA shock unconditioned stimulus (US). Other groups received a backward pairing, in which the US began before the CS, or a forward pairing, in which the CS began before the US. Control groups received only the US or received both the CS and the US but widely separated in time. Later, the CS was presented while the rats licked a drinking tube for water, and CS-elicited suppression of licking was taken as an index of the Pavlovian conditioned response (CR). It was found that groups receiving a single forward or a single simultaneous pairing suppressed more than groups that had received a backward pairing; and the backward groups, in turn, suppressed more than the control groups. It appears, then, that excitatory fear conditioning, as reflected in conditioned suppression of licking in rats, can be produced in a single trial by both backward and simultaneous conditioning procedures. 相似文献