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1.
Studies in laboratory animals have shown that the extinction of a conditioned stimulus, A, is regulated by the associative history of a second stimulus, X, when the two are extinguished in simultaneous compound: An inhibitory X protects A from extinction (Rescorla Learning & Behavior, 31, 124–132, 2003), whereas an excitatory X facilitates, and under some circumstances deepens, the extinction of A (Rescorla Journal of Experimental Psychology: Animal Behavior Processes, 26, 251–260, 2000, Journal of Experimental Psychology: Animal Behavior Processes, 32, 135–144, 2006). In the present study, we used the allergist task to examine whether the extinction of causal judgments in people is similarly regulated by the causal status of co-present stimuli. Experiment 1 showed that a cue trained as a conditioned inhibitor protected a target cue from extinction: The target extinguished in compound with the inhibitor was rated as being more causal of the outcome than was a target extinguished in compound with a control cue lacking inhibitory properties. In contrast, the remaining experiments showed that the extinction of a target cue was regulated by the presence, but not the causal status, of a partner cue: Target cues extinguished in compound were protected from extinction, and no evidence showed that an already extinguished partner conferred more protection (Exp. 2), or that an excitatory partner conferred any less protection (Exps. 2 and 3), or that an excitatory partner deepened the extinction of its already extinguished target. These findings are inconsistent with elemental models that rely on a common error term to explain associative changes in extinction. They are largely, but not completely, consistent with the configural model proposed by Pearce (Psychological Review, 94, 61–73, 1987), which predicts an ordering of levels of protection that was not observed. 相似文献
2.
In a Pavlovian conditioning situation, an initially neutral stimulus may be made excitatory by nonreinforced presentations
in compound with an established conditioned excitor [i.e., second-order conditioning (SOC)]. The established excitor may be
either a punctate cue or the training context. In four conditioned suppression experiments using rats, we investigated whether
SOC phenomena parallel other cue interaction effects. In Experiment 1, we found that the response potential of a target stimulus
was directly related to the intertrial interval when SOC was mediated by a punctate cue, and inversely related to the intertrial
interval when SOC was mediated by the training context. Experiment 2 demonstrated that punctate- and context-mediated SOC
are oppositely affected by posttraining context extinction, and Experiments 3 and 4 demonstrated that context- and punctate-mediated
SOC are differentially affected by conditioned stimulus (Experiment 3) and unconditioned stimulus (Experiment 4) preexposure
treatments. These findings parallel phenomena in conditioned inhibition and cue competition situations. 相似文献
3.
In the present experiments, we examined the role of within-compound associations in the interaction of the overshadowing procedure
with conditioned stimulus (CS) duration, using a conditioned suppression procedure with rats. In Experiment 1, we found that,
with elemental reinforced training, conditioned suppression to the target stimulus decreased as CS duration increased (i.e.,
the CS duration effect), whereas, with compound reinforced training (i.e., the overshadowing procedure), conditioned suppression to the target stimulus
increased as CS duration increased. In subsequent experiments, we replicated these findings with sensory preconditioning and
demonstrated that extinction of the overshadowing stimulus results in retrospective revaluation with short CSs and in mediated
extinction with long CSs. These results highlight the role of the duration of the stimulus in behavioral control. Moreover,
these results illuminate one cause (the CS duration) of whether retrospective revaluation or mediated extinction will be observed. 相似文献
4.
Extinction of a conditioned palatability shift preceded extinction of conditioned taste avoidance whether rats were tested
using a within-subjects design or a between-subjects design. In each of two experiments, consumption of 0.1% saccharin was
paired with either 20 ml/kg of 0.15 M LiCl or equivolume physiological saline on a single trial. In Experiment 1, on each
of 10 extinction trials, rats were given a taste reactivity test immediately prior to a consumption test. In Experiment 2,
half of the rats were extinguished by taste reactivity testing and half of the rats were extinguished by a consumption test
on each of 10 extinction trials. In both experiments, the aversive reactions of gaping and passive dripping were extinguished
in a single trial and the suppression of ingestive reactions was extinguished in 2 trials; however, extinction of taste avoidance
required 4–5 trials. These results suggest that rats continue to avoid a lithium-paired flavor even when they do not have
an aversion to the taste. 相似文献
5.
Michael J. Detke 《Learning & behavior》1991,19(4):345-354
Extinction of inhibition was examined in three pigeon autoshaping experiments. In Experiment 1, a sequential conditioned inhibitor (CI) lost inhibitory power after extinction trials. In Experiment 2, this loss of inhibition was replicated, and the effect was general to both the original target and a transfer target that was separately trained in an inhibition design. In Experiment 3, two CIs were trained simultaneously and two sequentially, and one of each was extinguished; all were tested simultaneously and sequentially. The results show that sequential testing is a necessary component for observing loss of inhibition. This is not consistent with an actual loss of inhibitory associations. It is suggested that the extinction trials either decrease processing of the CI, or extinguish its excitatory properties, to which some of the inhibition may be conditioned. 相似文献
6.
Two conditioned suppression experiments with rats were conducted to determine whether the spontaneous recovery and renewal
that are commonly observed in retroactive outcome interference (e.g., extinction) also occur in retroactive cue interference.
Experiment 1 showed that a long delay between Phase 2 (the interfering phase) and testing produces a recovery from the cue interference
(i.e., the delay enhanced responding to the target cue trained in Phase 1), which is analogous to the spontaneous recovery
effect observed in extinction and other retroactive outcome interference procedures. Experiment 2 showed that, when target and interfering cues are trained in separate contexts and testing occurs in a different but familiar
context, a recovery from the cue interference is also observed (i.e., the context shift enhanced responding to the target),
which is analogous to ABC renewal from extinction. The results are discussed in terms of the possibility that similar associative
mechanisms underlie cue and outcome interference. 相似文献
7.
Douglas C. Brooks Matthew I. Palmatier Eliseo O. Garcia Jessica L. Johnson 《Learning & behavior》1999,27(1):77-88
The effect of an auditory cue presented during extinction on spontaneous recovery of a conditioned taste aversion was investigated in three experiments. Experiment 1 demonstrated that the presence of the cue during extinction did not influence saccharin consumption during that phase, and that an aversion to saccharin in the absence of the cue was stronger at 18 days than at 1 day after extinction, representing spontaneous recovery rather than a renewal effect. Experiment 2 showed that a cue presented during extinction and testing reduced spontaneous recovery. Experiment 3 replicated that effect and showed that it depended on the cue’s correlation with extinction and not on an unconditioned effect; cues that had been presented during or prior to conditioning did not reduce spontaneous recovery when presented during testing. The cue’s potential to reduce spontaneous recovery through conditioned inhibition or configural cue learning is discussed, as is the possibility that the cue retrieves a saccharin extinction memory in a manner consistent with Bouton’s (1993) account of spontaneous recovery. 相似文献
8.
Most theories of associative learning assert that conditioned responding to a target cue is a monotonically increasing function of unconditioned-stimulus (US) intensity. In a lick suppression preparation with rats, a cue was paired with a 0.4-, 0.6-, 0.8-, 1.0-, 1.2-, or 1.4-mA footshock in Experiment 1a, and with a 0.3-, 0.8-, 1.3-, or 1.8-mA footshock in Experiment 1b. Subsequent suppression in response to the cue was an inverted-U function of the US intensity. In Experiment 2, we demonstrated that massive extinction of the training context and compound conditioning can each attenuate the response decrement caused by training with a high-intensity US. The sometimes-competing-retrieval model (Stout & Miller, Psychological Review 114:759–783, 2007) provides a better fit to these data than do several other models of associative learning. 相似文献
9.
Are humans unique in their ability to interpret exogenous events as causes? We addressed this question by observing the behavior of rats for indications of causal learning. Within an operant motor–sensory preconditioning paradigm, associative surgical techniques revealed that rats attempted to control an outcome (i.e., a potential effect) by manipulating a potential exogenous cause (i.e., an intervention). Rats were able to generate an innocuous auditory stimulus. This stimulus was then paired with an aversive stimulus. The animals subsequently avoided potential generation of the predictive cue, but not if the aversive stimulus was subsequently devalued or the predictive cue was extinguished (Exp. 1). In Experiment 2, we demonstrated that the aversive stimulus we used was in fact aversive, that it was subject to devaluation, that the cue–aversive stimulus pairings did make the cue a conditioned stimulus, and that the cue was subject to extinction. In Experiments 3 and 4, we established that the decrease in leverpressing observed in Experiment 1 was goal-directed instrumental behavior rather than purely a product of Pavlovian conditioning. To the extent that interventions suggest causal reasoning, it appears that causal reasoning can be based on associations between contiguous exogenous events. Thus, contiguity appears capable of establishing causal relationships between exogenous events. Our results challenge the widely held view that causal learning is uniquely human, and suggest that causal learning is explicable in an associative framework. 相似文献
10.
Rats were used in a lick suppression preparation to assess the contribution of conditioned-stimulus (CS)–context and context–unconditioned-stimulus
(US) associations to experimental extinction. Experiment 1 investigated whether strengthening the CS–acquisition context association enhances extinction by determining whether stronger
extinction is observed when CS-alone trials (i.e., extinction treatment) are administered in the acquisition context (AAC
renewal), relative to a context that is neutral with respect to the US (ABC renewal). Less recovery of responding to the CS
was observed in the former than in the latter case, extending the finding that AAC renewal is weaker than ABC renewal to our
lick suppression preparation. Experiment 2 assessed the contribution of the acquisition context–US association to extinction of a CS by examining the effect of postextinction
exposure to the acquisition context on responding to the extinguished CS. This manipulation enhanced responding to the extinguished
CS in AAC, but not ABC, renewal. Experiment 3 addressed the contribution of the CS–acquisition context association by examining the potential of a neutral stimulus, presented
in compound with the target CS during extinction treatment, to overshadow the CS–acquisition context association. This manipulation
enhanced responding to the extinguished CS in AAC, but not ABC, renewal. The results stress the important role of contextual
association in extinction and renewal. 相似文献
11.
In two conditioned lick suppression experiments with rats, we examined the permanence of the overshadowing effect as a function of the number of compound reinforced training trials. In Experiment 1, robust overshadowing was observed following 4 compound-US pairings but dissipated with 36 pairings. Overshadowing decreased because responding to the overshadowed stimulus increased, not because responding by the control group decreased. This dissipation was stimulus specific and not attributable to a response ceiling. Experiment 2 extended the generality of the effect to a sensory preconditioning design and further demonstrated that overshadowing lost through many compound-US pairings was restored by posttraining extinction of the training context. The results are explicable in terms of the extended comparator hypothesis (Denniston, Savastano, & Miller, 2001) under the assumption that the impacts of first- and second-order comparator processes grow differentially as a function of number of trials. 相似文献
12.
Four conditioned suppression experiments with rats, using an ABC renewal design, investigated the effects of compounding the target conditioned excitor with additional, nontarget conditioned excitors during extinction. Experiment 1 showed stronger extinction, as evidenced by less renewal, when the target excitor was extinguished in compound with a second excitor, relative to when it was extinguished with associatively neutral stimuli. Critically, this deepened extinction effect was attenuated (i.e., more renewal occurred) when a third excitor was added during extinction training. This novel demonstration contradicts the predictions of associative learning models based on total error reduction, but it is explicable in terms of a counteraction effect within the framework of the extended comparator hypothesis. The attenuated deepened extinction effect was replicated in Experiments 2a and 3, which also showed that pretraining consisting of weakening the association between the two additional excitors (Experiments 2a and 2b) or weakening the association between one of the additional excitors and the unconditioned stimulus (Experiment 3) attenuated the counteraction effect, thereby resulting in a decrease in responding to the target excitor. These results suggest that more than simple total error reduction determines responding after extinction. 相似文献
13.
Three experiments with rat subjects examined the effects of contextual stimuli on performance in appetitive conditioning. A 10-sec tone conditioned stimulus (CS) was paired with a food-pellet unconditioned stimulus (US); conditioning was indexed by the observation of headjerking, a response of the rat to auditory stimuli associated with food. In Experiment 1, a context switch following initial conditioning did not affect conditioned responding to the tone; however, when the response was extinguished in the different context, a return to the original conditioning context “renewed” extinguished responding. These results were replicated in Experiments 2 and 3 after equating exposure to the two contexts (Experiment 2) and massing the conditioning and extinction trials (Experiment 3). The results of Experiment 1 also demonstrated that separate exposure to the US following extinction reinstates extinguished responding to the tone; this effect was further shown to depend at least partly on presenting the US in the context in which testing is to occur (Experiments 2 and 3). Overall, the results are consistent with previous data from aversive conditioning procedures. In either appetitive or aversive conditioning, the context may be especially important in affecting performance after extinction. 相似文献
14.
In three experiments with rats, we demonstrated that a conditioned response that is learned and extinguished in one context (Context A) can be renewed when the conditioned stimulus (CS) is tested in a second context (Context B). In Experiments 1 and 3, the effect was observed in conditioned suppression; in Experiment 2, it was produced in appetitive conditioning. The result occurs when Contexts A and B are equally familiar, equally associated with reinforcement, or equally associated with both reinforcement and nonreinforcement. The results extend the range of conditions known to produce the renewal effect, and they are consistent with the view that retrieval of extinction depends more on the context than does retrieval of conditioning. 相似文献
15.
In five conditioned taste aversion experiments with rats, summation, retardation, and preference tests were used to assess the effects of extinguishing a conditioned saccharin aversion for three or nine trials. In Experiment 1, a summation test showed that saccharin aversion extinguished over nine trials reduced the aversion to a merely conditioned flavor (vinegar), whereas three saccharin extinction trials did not subsequently influence the vinegar aversion. Experiment 2 clarified that result, with unpaired controls equated on flavor exposure prior to testing; the results with those controls suggested that the flavor extinguished for nine trials produced generalization decrement during testing. In Experiment 3, the saccharin aversion reconditioned slowly after nine extinction trials, but not after three. Those results suggested the development of latent inhibition after more than three extinction trials. Preference tests comparing saccharin consumption with a concurrently available fluid (water in Experiment 4, saline in Experiment 5) showed that the preference for saccharin was greater after nine extinction trials than after three. However, saccharin preference after nine extinction trials was not greater, as compared with that for either latent inhibition controls (Experiments 4 and 5) or a control given equated exposures to saccharin and trained to drink saline at a high rate prior to testing (Experiment 5). Concerns about whether conditioned inhibition has been demonstrated in any flavor aversion procedure are discussed. Our findings help explain both successes and failures in demonstrating postextinction conditioned response recovery effects reported in the conditioned taste aversion literature, and they can be explained using a memory interference account. 相似文献
16.
Imposition of a retention interval between cue-outcome pairings and testing can alleviate the retardation of conditioned responding induced by pretraining exposure to the cue (i.e., the CS-preexposure effect). However, recent studies have reported an enhanced effect of CS-preexposure treatment with longer retention intervals (De la Casa & Lubow, 2000, 2002; Lubow & De la Casa, 2002). In a series of conditioned barpress suppression studies with rats, we examined the effects of imposing a retention interval just prior to testing following either CS-preexposure (cue alone before cue-outcome pairings) or extinction (cue alone after cue-outcome pairings) treatments. Experiment 1 replicated in a different preparation recent reports of CS-preexposure treatment effects increasing with longer retention intervals. Experiment 2 showed that spontaneous recovery of stimulus control of behavior after extinction can be obtained with the same parameters as those used to observe the augmented effect of CS-preexposure treatment. In Experiment 3, both the augmented effect of CS-preexposure treatment and spontaneous recovery from extinction were found when we used, in place of a retention interval, an associative priming manipulation. 相似文献
17.
Todd R. Schachtman Wesley J. Kasprow Robert C. Meyer Mark J. Bourne Julie A. Hart 《Learning & behavior》1992,20(3):207-218
Using a conditioned taste aversion preparation overshadowing of flavor-illness association was produced through the presentation of a second flavor during the interval between the first flavor and illness. The modulatory effects of extinguishing the association between the second (over-shadowing) flavor and illness on conditioned responding to the target flavor was investigated. In Experiment 1, we found that, following one-trial overshadowing, extinction of the overshadowing flavor had no effect on conditioned responding to the target flavor. In Experiment 2, we found a similar absence of an effect of extinction of the overshadowing stimulus in a multitrial over-shadowing paradigm. Experiment 3 confirmed the results of Experiments 1 and 2 using conditioning parameters that were designed to weaken the association between the overshadowed flavor and illness. In Experiments 4 and 5, we used simultaneous presentation of the flavors during conditioning and obtained a weakened aversion to the overshadowed flavor when the overshadowing CS was extinguished. These findings are inconsistent with previous observations in conditioned fear preparations that suggest that extinction of the association between the overshadowing stimulus and the unconditioned stimulus attenuates overshadowing. Possible reasons for the discrepant results are discussed. 相似文献
18.
Retroactive cue interference refers to situations in which a target cue X is paired with an outcome in phase 1 and a nontarget cue Z is paired with the same outcome in phase 2, with less subsequent responding to X being seen as a result of the phase 2 training. Two conditioned suppression experiments with rats were conducted to determine whether retroactive cue interference is similarly modulated by a manipulation that influences retroactive outcome interference (e.g., extinction). Both experiments used an ABC renewal-like design in which phase 1 training, phase 2 training, and testing each occurred in different contexts. Experiment 1 found that training the target association in multiple contexts without altering the number of training trials during phase 1 decreased retroactive cue interference (i.e., increased responding consistent with the target association). Experiment 2 found that training the interfering association in multiple contexts without altering the number of interference trials during phase 2 increased retroactive cue interference (i.e., decreased responding consistent with the target association). The possibility of similar mechanisms underlying cue interference and outcome interference is discussed. 相似文献
19.
Three experiments demonstrated that, following the extinction of an established conditioned stimulus (CSA—e.g., tone), the
pairing of a novel, cross-modal stimulus (CSB—e.g., light) with the unconditioned stimulus (US) results in strong recovery
of responding to the extinguished CSA. Experiment 1 demonstrated that the recovery of responding to CSA is not the result
of US reinstatement but is attributable to pairings of CSB with the US. Experiment 2 demonstrated that the recovery of responding
is specific to CSA and is not the result of cross-modal generalization. Experiment 3 revealed that a large number of CSB-US
pairings in Stage 1 significantly reduced the amount of recovery to CSA during subsequent CSB-US trials. Experiment 3 also
provided unexpected evidence of cross-modal secondary extinction. The extinction and subsequent recovery of responding seen
in the present experiments is discussed with respect to possible contributions from contextual associations, CS processing,
US processing, conditioned response expression, and layered excitatory associations. 相似文献
20.
Pavlov (1927/1960) reported that following the conditioning of several stimuli, extinction of one conditioned stimulus (CS) attenuated responding
to others that had not undergone direct extinction. However, this secondary extinction effect has not been widely replicated in the contemporary literature. In three conditioned suppression experiments with rats,
we further explored the phenomenon. In Experiment 1, we asked whether secondary extinction is more likely to occur with target
CSs that have themselves undergone some prior extinction. A robust secondary extinction effect was obtained with a nonextinguished
target CS. Experiment 2 showed that extinction of one CS was sufficient to reduce renewal of a second CS when it was tested
in a neutral (nonextinction) context. In Experiment 3, secondary extinction was observed in groups that initially received
intermixed conditioning trials with the target and nontarget CSs, but not in groups that received conditioning of the two
CSs in separate sessions. The results are consistent with the hypothesis that CSs must be associated with a common temporal
context during conditioning for secondary extinction to occur. 相似文献