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Louis M. Herman 《Learning & behavior》1975,3(1):43-48
Interference in auditory short-term memory in the bottlenosed dolphin,Tursiops truncatus (Montagu), was studied using a delayed matching-to-sample task. At each trial, one of two sample sounds, chosen randomly, was projected underwater for 4 sec and then, after a variable delay interval, both sounds were presented. A response to the sound matching the initial sample was reinforced. Correct matching was significantly reduced following short intervals between trials in combination with long delays after the sample (proactive interference), or when a near continuous irrelevant sound was inserted into the delay interval (retroactive interference). There was rapid habituation to interference if the irrelevant sound was short in duration relative to the delay interval. For both proactive and retroactive interference, the errors were predominantly responses to the sample sound appropriate to the prior trial rather than to the current trial, indicating that memory for the relative recency of events (temporal memory) was degraded by interference. When interference was deleted or minimized, temporal memory remained nearly perfect over 30-sec delay intervals, the longest tested. The importance of distinguishing between temporal memory and nontemporal, or event, memory in different forms of the delayed matching task was emphasized. 相似文献
3.
Donald M. Wilkie 《Learning & behavior》1986,14(3):257-266
In the delayed matching of key location procedure, pigeons must remember the location of the sample key in order to choose correctly between two comparison keys. The deleterious effect of short intertrial intervals on key location matching found in previous studies suggested that pigeons’ short-term spatial memory is affected by proactive interference. However, because a reward expectancy mechanism may account for the intertriai interval effect, additional research aimed at demonstrating proactive interference was warranted. In Experiment 1, matching accuracy did not decline from early to late trials within a session, a finding inconsistent with a proactive interference effect. In Experiment 2, evidence suggestive of proactive interference was found: Matching was more accurate when the locations that served as distractors and as samples were chosen from different sets. However, this effect could have been due to differences in task difficulty, and the results of the two subsequent experiments provided no evidence of proactive interference. In Experiment 3, the distractor on Trialn was either the location that had served as the sample on Trialn ? 1 or one that had been a sample on earlier trials. Matching accuracy was not inferior on the former type of trial. In Experiment 4, the stimuli that served as samples and distractors were taken from sets containing 2, 3, 5, or 9 locations. Matching accuracy was no worse, actually slightly better, with smaller memory set sizes. Overall, these findings suggested that pigeons’ memory for spatial location may be immune to proactive interference. However, when, in Experiment 5, an intratrial manipulation was used, clear evidence of proactive interference was found: Matching accuracy was considerably lower when the sample was preceded by the distractor for that trial than when it was preceded by the sample or by nothing. Possible reasons why interference was produced by intratrial but not intertrial manipulations are discussed, as are implications of these data for models of pigeons’ short-term spatial memory. 相似文献
4.
Anthony A. Wright Peter J. Urcuioli Stephen F. Sands Hector C. Santiago 《Learning & behavior》1981,9(4):595-603
Delayed matching-to-sample performance by pigeons was interfered with by displaying a monochromatic annulus around the center (sample) pecking key. The wavelength of the annulus and its point of interpolation within a trial were varied to determine possible differential effects on matching accuracy. Experiment 1 showed that delayed matching was most disrupted when the interference stimulus (570 nm, 630 nm, or achromatic white) appeared during the delay interval of a trial. Little if any disruption occurred when the interference stimulus was present during the sample and choice periods. The spectral relationship between the chromatic interference stimuli (570 and 630 nm) and the sample stimuli (570 and 630 nm) did not consistently influence the degree to which matching accuracy was affected in any interpolation condition. Experiment 2 found a similar pattern of within-trial effects when the interference stimulus was simply a change from a white achromatic annulus to a chromatic one. This finding indicates that illumination changes, such as the popular houselight variation, are not necessary to produce interference in delayed matching to sample. Even with illumination held constant, however, performance was not differentially sensitive to the similarity between interference and sample stimulus wavelengths. It is suggested that other experiments showing similarity effects in interference of delayed matching to sample were conducted in such a way that subjects confused the interfering stimuli with the samples. 相似文献
5.
The short-term memory for sounds of the bottlenosed dolphin was tested using symbolic, identity, and probe forms of the delayed matching-to-sample (DMS) task. The forms differed in the number (one or two) or nature (symbolic or identity matches of sample sounds) of postdelay test stimuli available as memory retrieval cues. Although symbolic DMS was difficult to learn, the final performance level was approximately equal to that for identity or probe DMS. On all tasks, the dolphin’s responses were above 80% correct through to delays of 90 sec and, in some cases, through to delays of 180 and 240 sec, the “limits” being governed mainly by the dolphin’s reluctance to continue being tested at long delays. Encoding of sample stimuli into their learned symbolic representation was hypothesized to have reduced symbolic DMS to a recognition memory task, resulting in the observed equivalence of performance with the other two recognition memory tasks. The probe DMS results, unlike those for identity or symbolic DMS, showed no significant proactive interference effects from samples of prior trials. Instead, proactive interference was traceable to the probe value of the prior trial. Overall, the auditory DMS data for the dolphin were functionally similar to results reported for monkeys tested on symbolic, identity, and probe visual DMS tasks. 相似文献
6.
Six capuchin monkeys were trained on a series of indirect, delayed response problems with delay intervals ranging from 0 to 60 sec. Data were analyzed by sequential state theory in order to quantify random and nonrandom components of the subjects’ response sequences. A tendency of the subjects to repeat responses to the position chosen on the previous trial was a significant source of proactive interference even when effective orienting responses were elicited by the predelay cue. Changes in random and nonrandom response components with increasing delays suggested a two-phase process: the first for delays up to 7 sec characterized by increases in random and nonrandom error-producing responses, and the second for delays greater than 7 sec characterized by increases in random responding only. 相似文献
7.
Events occurring on the prior trial in delayed matching-to-sample tasks can proactively interfere with accurate matching on the current trial. The present study investigated the accumulation of proactive interference in delayed matching-to-sample at the local level of two consecutive trials, as well as in terms of a general performance decrement accumulating over the session. Higher-order analyses, in terms of the parameters of negative exponential functions fitted to the data, showed that the magnitude of the local proactive-interference effect resulting from inter-trial disagreement of stimuli decreased over the session. Furthermore, there was no evidence for the general performance decrement over the session, which is frequently attributed to proactive interference. The attenuation of the local proactive-interference effect was accounted for in terms of changes in the relative probabilities of agreeing and nonagreeing trials. 相似文献
8.
When pigeons are trained on a delayed conditional discrimination with presence versus absence samples and tested with delays, a bias to choose the comparison associated with the absence sample is observed with increasing delay. Additionally, when the samples consist of food versus no food, this trial-type performance difference is reversed on short-delay trials: a bias to choose the comparison associated with the presence sample develops with delay testing. This reversal in comparison bias at short delays has been attributed to a preference produced by backward associations between the hedonic samples and the nonhedonic choice stimuli. In the present experiment, we tested an alternative hypothesis, that the short-delay comparison bias is produced by proactive interference—in particular, from reinforcement obtained on the previous trial—by including a group trained with reinforcement on only half of the trials with a correct response. According to the proactive interference account, this group should have shown a smaller short-delay comparison bias than would the typical 100% reinforcement group. Instead, consistent with a backward-association interpretation, the magnitude of the short-delay comparison bias shown by the 50% group was significantly greater than that shown by the 100% group. 相似文献
9.
Male and female Wistar rats were trained in a delayed matching-to-position procedure in which one of the two levers (sample) was presented. Pressing this lever resulted in its retraction and began a delay interval of random variable duration, which terminated with the occurrence of the first nose poke in the pellet retrieval unit after the delay interval had expired. Both levers were then inserted into the chamber, and food became available when the subject pressed the lever that had previously been pressed (matching response). When the subject failed to make a matching response, time out (5 sec) was presented. In the next experimental condition, nonmatching was reinforced. Males and females required an equal number of trials to attain 80% accuracy during three consecutive sessions under matching and nonmatching conditions. Response accuracy decreased as the delay interval increased, during both conditions. Differences between the sexes were not observed, suggesting that memory functions in male and female rats may only differ when other behavioral differences between the sexes are allowed to interfere with the assessment of memory functioning. 相似文献
10.
Michael J. Pontecorvo 《Learning & behavior》1983,11(3):356-366
Rats performed a new delayed matching-to-sample task—the continuous nonmatching-to-sample task. A variable number of trials with one stimulus alternated with trials with a second stimulus. A response on the trial following a stimulus change (nonmatch trial) was reinforced. Responses to repeated stimuli were never reinforced. Rats could maximize reinforcement by remembering across the intertriai interval which stimulus was presented on the previous trial. Sequential analysis indicated that interference from previous conflicting trials (proactive interference, PI) reduced response accuracy but did not affect retention: Accuracy was lower on trials following a nonmatch trial than on trials following repeated stimuli. Furthermore, accuracy increased as a function of the time between the to-be-remembered nonmatch trial and the previous interfering trial. However, neither time between trials nor the distance from a stimulus change affected the rate of decline in accuracy over the retention interval. 相似文献
11.
Peter C. Holland 《Learning & behavior》1999,27(2):127-139
The effects of the intertrial interval (ITI) on learning and performance in Pavlovian appetitive serial feature positive (SFP) discriminations were examined in three experiments with rats. With longer ITIs, acquisition was more rapid, and there was less transfer of the feature’s behavioral control to a separately trained target cue, suggesting that longer ITIs encouraged the use of an occasion setting strategy. Behavior was also affected by discrimination-specific ITIs. Rats were trained with two SFP discriminations. The overall ITI was held constant, but the intervals between trials of one discrimination were varied by intermixing different numbers of trials from the other discrimination. Learning was more rapid when the intervals between trials of a single discrimination were longer. A sequential analyses showed that performance on a trial was impaired when it was preceded by a trial that included the same target cue but with the opposite trial outcome. The results are discussed in the frameworks of proactive interference effects and deletion-comparator processes (Cooper, Aronson, Balsam, & Gibbon, 1990.) 相似文献
12.
Pigeons acquired a successive delayed matching-to-sample task at a delay interval of 4 sec. Instructional stimuli were interpolated in the delay interval signaling the occurrence (R-cue) or nonoccurrence (F-cue) of comparison stimuli, a procedure modeled after the directed forgetting techniques commonly used in human memory studies. Accuracy on probe trials (in which comparison stimuli were presented following F-cues) was reduced relative to performance on standard training trials in which R-cues signaling the occurrence of comparison stimuli appeared in the same temporal location. The extent of the reduction in accuracy depended on the temporal location of the F-cues, the reduction being greater when the cue was more remote from the comparison stimuli. Examination of retention interval keypecking revealed a strong correlation between matching performance and retention interval responding. 相似文献
13.
Douglas L. Medin 《Learning & behavior》1980,8(4):553-560
Two prominent theories of proactive interference in animal memory predict that the effects of varying the interval between the interfering and to-be-remembered stimulus in a delayed-matching-to-sample paradigm ought to be comparable to the effects of manipulating the retention interval. To assess this prediction, monkeys were tested in a situation in which a sample was presented, followed by a variable intersample interval, whereupon a second sample was presented. After a delay interval, a choice test was given between the two stimuli that had served as samples. The correct choice was always the most recently presented sample stimulus, and the initial sample of a sequence provided a potential source of proactive interference. In two experiments, delay interval altered performance, whereas interstimulus interval had little or no effect. In a third experiment, using a small set of sample stimuli, intertriai interval altered proactive interference, but again interstimulus interval had no effect. One way of accounting for these data is in terms of distinct short- and long-term memory processes. 相似文献
14.
Only a limited number of species have been found capable of generalized matching-to-sample (MTS) after exposure to relatively few training exemplars. We trained a juvenile, experimentally naive California sea lion (Zalophus californianus) in MTS, using a pair of three-dimensional objects as samples. Successful matching to a criterion of 90% correct or better over 2 successive sessions was attained in 12 sessions (269 trials and 70 errors). Two subsequent “partial” transfer tests, in which each of the two training objects was paired with a novel test object, and four additional transfer tests, all with novel objects, were presented following training. An 80% performance criterion over 2 successive sessions was reached, or closely approximated, in from 2 to 4 transfer sessions for all transfer tests; errors to criterion tended to be reduced across the successive novel transfer tests and were as few as five during the final two tests; and performance on the first 48 trials of the last two novel transfers was not significantly different from a near-ceiling level baseline performance measure. Neophobic responses of the sea lion to new objects precluded an unbiased evaluation of immediate (Trial 1) transfer. The sea lion’s short-term memory for sample objects was also measured. Matching performance was maintained at a level of 78% correct responses or better for delays through to 45 sec after removal of the sample object. At a 58-sec delay, the longest tested, performance declined to 69% correct responses. These retention levels are only somewhat below levels reported for dolphins and nonhuman primates tested on visual delayed MTS, but they are above levels typically reported for pigeon subjects. 相似文献
15.
The effect of interference treatments on pigeons’ working memory for event duration was investigated, using a successive matching-to-sample procedure. In three experiments, birds were trained to match different keylight durations (2 or 6 sec) to different comparison colors (red or green) following delays of 0 to 12 sec. The interfering effect of delay-interval illumination and illumination change was assessed in Experiments 1 and 2. It was found that the absolute levels of houselight illumination influenced delayed matching accuracy. Birds trained with houselight illumination showed larger decrements in matching accuracy with increasing delays than did birds trained with darkened delay intervals. In addition, increases in delay-interval illumination relative to baseline produced greater interference with delayed matching accuracy than did decreases in houselight illumination relative to baseline. In Experiment 3, the effect of interpolated instructional cues to remember or forget was examined. As in other directed forgetting experiments employing conventional modality characteristics as the samples to be remembered, it was found that instructional cues to forget, presented during the delay interval, reduced matching accuracy compared to instructional cues to remember. It was concluded that these findings support models of temporal memory that assume temporal information is coded into categorical information onto some nontime dimension over models that assume temporal information is remembered amodally as specific time durations. 相似文献
16.
Two experiments employed a delayed conditional discrimination procedure in which half the trials began with the presentation of food and half with no food; following a retention interval, subjects were presented with a choice between red and green keys, a response to one of which was reinforced according to whether the trial had started with food or no food. In Experiment 1, after 38 training sessions during which the retention interval was gradually increased, pigeons performed at a moderate level with intervals of 5 to 7.5 sec. A final test produced a steep forgetting function for food trials, but not for no-food trials; performance was unaffected by the duration of the intertriai interval (10 or 40 sec). Experiment 2 used the delayed conditional discrimination procedure to compare short-term memory in jackdaws (Corvus monedulus) with that in pigeons. Although the performance of the jackdaws was below that of the pigeons at the start of training, they showed more rapid learning over long delays, and, in the final test, a shallower forgetting function for food trials than that shown by pigeons. The results suggested superior short-term memory in jackdaws, which may help to explain the better performance of corvids in general when compared with that of pigeons in certain complex learning tasks. 相似文献
17.
James V. Devine Luther C. Jones Janice W. Neville Dilys J. Sakai 《Learning & behavior》1977,5(1):57-62
Two experiments were performed to determine the effect of sample duration (0.1, 2, and 4 sec), delay interval (.03, 4, 8, 16, and 32 sec), and type of stimulus (color and shape) on the matching performance of rhesus monkeys. In Experiment 1, the 15 possible delay-duration combinations were randomly presented in blocks of 15 trials. In Experiment 2, each duration was held constant and the five delays randomly presented. Then each delay interval was held constant with the three durations randomly varied. Matching performance increased as sample duration increased (ps < .01 and .005), while length of delay did not significantly affect performance. The type of stimuli paired in the matching test significantly affected performance (ps < .05 and .10) with the shape/shape choices leading to the poorest performance. Stimulus discriminability and amount of training with brief sample durations were implicated as significant determinants of matching performance. 相似文献
18.
Four experiments assessed the role of reinforcement expectancies in the trial spacing effect obtained in delayed matching-to-sample by pigeons. In Experiment 1, a differential outcome (DO) group received reinforcement with a probability of 1.0 for correct comparison responses following one sample stimulus and a probability of 0.2 for correct comparison responses following the other sample stimulus. The nondifferential outcome (NDO) group received reinforcement with a probability of 0.6 for correct responses to either stimulus. While matching accuracy was higher for the DO group than for the NDO group, both groups showed an equivalent decline in accuracy as the intertriai interval (ITI) duration was decreased. However, within the DO group, ITI duration affected performance on low-probability-of-reinforcement trials but not on high-probability-of-reinforcement trials. In Experiment 2, delay interval (DI) duration was 5, 10, or 15 sec and accuracy was higher for the DO group than for the NDO group at all DI durations. In addition, accuracy decreased similarly on high- and low-probability-of-reinforcement trials for the DO group as DI was increased. In Experiment 3, all birds were studied under DO conditions and ITI duration was manipulated along with DI duration. At the short DI duration, decreasing ITI duration had a detrimental effect on low-probability-of-reinforcement trials but no effect on high-probability-of-reinforcement trials. At the long DI duration, decreasing ITI duration had detrimental effects on both types of trials. In Experiment 4, unsignaled ITI reinforcers disrupted accuracy when the DI was long and when the ITI was short. The applicability of scalar expectancy theory to these data is discussed. 相似文献
19.
With a relatively complex maze, reliable forgetting is seen clearly when the training-to-test interval is 25 days. This forgetting is demonstrated by longer time to run the maze and by an increase in the number of errors and retracings from the last training trials to the first test trial. In this case, forgetting is a lapse, not a loss, since performance attains the last training trial level at a subsequent test. Furthermore, a reminder—a 90-sec exposure to background stimuli in the experimental room just prior to the test trial—that does not in itself contain sufficient information to facilitate performance in naive animals, significantly improves maze performance in rats that have “forgotten,” even on the first test trial. Two additional experiments were aimed at assessing the role of time and duration of pretest cuing. In the first experiment, the animals were presented the reminder (90 sec in duration) at different times before the test trial. The results show that this reminder significantly alleviates forgetting only when presented just prior to the test, and is less effective when given 1 or 24 h before the test. In the second experiment, contextual cues, which were presented just prior to testing in all experimental groups, varied in duration. The results showed that (1) animals given the reminder treatment for only 10 sec perform at the same level as controls; (2) cuing for 30 sec and especially for 90 sec alleviates forgetting; and (3) a longer exposure to background stimuli (300 sec) leads to intermediate levels of performance, probably due to a partial extinction of the cue value of these stimuli. 相似文献
20.
Previously, we have shown that changes in pigeons’ divided attention performance resulting from changes in relative reinforcement
are well described by the generalized matching law. In the present experiment, we examined whether sensitivity of performance
to variations in relative reinforcement would be dependent upon sample duration. Pigeons responded on a delayed matching-to-sample
procedure with compound samples (color 1 line orientation) and element comparison stimuli (two colors or two line orientations).
Relative reinforcement for accurate matches on the two types of comparison trials varied across conditions. Sample duration
was short (i.e., 0.75 sec) for half of the trials in a session and longer (i.e., 2.25 sec) for the other half. Sensitivity
of accuracy to changes in relative reinforcement was greater with the longer sample than with the shorter sample, suggesting
that differential reinforcement alters the allocation of attending to the elements of compound stimuli. Continued examination
of the applicability of well-established theories of goal-directed behavior to the allocation of attention may provide further
insights into what is variously referred to as goal-directed, voluntary, endogenous, or top-down control of attention. 相似文献