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1.
The pigeon’s keypecking response includes both a head-transport (peck) and a jaw-movement (gape) component. Because the two components are mediated by different effector systems, they may potentially be viewed as orthogonal responses. A response differentiation procedure was used to bring gape amplitude under operant control. The procedure employed a conjunctive response requirement in which reinforcement was contingent upon both gaping and key contact. The key-contact requirement was held constant, while the gape contingency was systematically varied to reinforce either decreases or increases in gape amplitude with respect to baseline. The procedure was effective in shifting the gape distributions in both the upward and downward directions and in inducing new gape values that deviated from the baseline in the reinforced direction. These observations indicate that gape may be brought under operant control. However, subjects showed a bias in the differentiation of the gape response, such that larger gapes were more readily differentiated than smaller gapes. The results are discussed in relation to the methodological utility of the paradigm, the problem of biological constraints on learning, and the heuristic utility of a response components analysis. 相似文献
2.
In Experiment 1, the form of keypecks produced in an autoshaping procedure with food or water reinforcers was compared with that of eating and drinking responses. Because the responses involve a number of different effector systems, several elements of response form were measured, including peck force and duration, gape, and eye closure. Gape was the only measure to reliably distinguish between both ingestive responses and between conditioned keypecks reinforced with food or water. With either reinforcer, keypecks had greater force than did ingestive behaviors. In Experiment 2, a transition between two forms of keypeck was produced by manipulating deprivation and reinforcer conditions. Some measures appeared to vary in a dichotomous manner between two discrete response forms; gape showed a gradual and continuous change involving the production of intermediate forms of the response. It was concluded that the control of conditioned response form involves theconstruction of the response from movements produced by several effector systems, each with potentially different sources of control. 相似文献
3.
A sensory preconditioning analogue was employed to separate signaling effects from motivational effects observed in appetitive-to-aversive transfer of training. Rabbits received appetitive conditioning (tone-water pairings) of the jaw-movement response, followed by aversive conditioning of the nictitating membrane response, during which water delivery served as the CS for para-orbital shock. When the tone was subsequently presented, only subjects exposed to both sets of pairings demonstrated conditioned jaw movement and nictitating membrane responses. The occurrence of both responses to the tone is inconsistent with the action of reciprocal inhibition between motivational states. The results are interpreted in terms of multiple mediators for transfer-of-training paradigms. 相似文献
4.
Rabbits under high or moderate water deprivation received in Stage 1 either paired (CS+), unpaired (CS?), or no-tone/shock presentations, with the pairings being appropriate for nictitating membrane conditioning. In Stage 2, all groups were given paired tone and water deliveries for jaw-movement conditioning, while, in Stage 3, all group received the tone and shock paired together for membrane conditioning. In Stage 2, the previously established aversive CS+ suppressed jaw-movement conditioning under high deprivation, and membrane CR decrements were directly related to deprivation. Also in Stage 2, the aversive CS? raised jaw-movement conditioning under moderate deprivation. In Stage 3, membrane CR performance immediately returned in the aversive CS+ group. For the other groups, conditioning was faster under high, relative to moderate, deprivation; however, the initial membrane CR occurrence required more trials if unpaired presentations were used in Stage 1. These results suggest that CSs can acquire both opponent-process and associative effects expressed according to the prevailing training conditions. 相似文献
5.
The sight of another pigeon pecking a response key for grain resulted in similar pecking by more pigeons than did the sight of another pigeon eating or the sight of another pigeon (neither pecking nor eating). But more pigeons pecked the response key when they could see another pigeon that was neither pecking nor eating than when no other pigeon was there (whether or not key-light/grain pairings were observable in the adjacent compartment). Finally, observation of another pigeon pecking but not eating produced pecking comparable to observation of both pecking and eating. The presence of both imitation and social facilitation of keypecking were demonstrated. Observation of the consummatory response contributed little to keypecking. 相似文献
6.
In a Pavlovian procedure, groups of pigeons were presented with a compound auditory-visual stimulus that terminated with either response-independent electric shock or food. In a subsequent test, the tone CS was dominant in aversive conditioning, reliably eliciting conditioned head raising and prancing. The red light CS was dominant in appetitive conditioning, reliably eliciting pecking. This result was replicated in a second experiment, in which trials were widely spaced. Pour additional groups of pigeons received pairings of the separate element CSs with the USs. Red light, but not tone, was an effective CS in appetitive conditioning, whereas tone, but not red light, was effective in aversive conditioning. There was no discriminative responding in zero-contingency control groups. Several theoretical accounts of these data are discussed. 相似文献
7.
The present study examined the nature of the “avoidance” response in goldfish under the linear presentation procedure (Zerbolio, 1981). With this procedure, shuttling behavior occurring during the presentation of the trial stimulus produces either CS? or CS+, and further occurrence of shuttling within the trial interval (10 sec) changes the value of CS from negative to positive, or vice versa. If the fish remains in the compartment when the prevailing cue state is CS? at the end of the interval, shock can be avoided. With this procedure fish responded to the CS+ more than to the CS? and avoided shock. But fish in one of two control groups, in which responses had no effect in changing the cue state from CS+ to CS?, or vice versa, also showed a clear differentiation. The results were generally in line with the view that the “avoidance” response in fish is acquired through classical conditioning. The contribution of classical conditioning to the acquisition of avoidance response is discussed. 相似文献
8.
Stimuli associated with primary reinforcement for instrumental behavior are widely believed to acquire the capacity to function as conditioned reinforcers via Pavlovian conditioning. Some Pavlovian conditioning studies suggest that animals learn the important temporal relations between stimuli and integrate such temporal information over separate experiences to form a temporal map. The present experiment examined whether Pavlovian conditioning can establish a positive instrumental conditioned reinforcer through such temporal integration. Two groups of rats received either delay or trace appetitive conditioning in which a neutral stimulus predicted response-independent food deliveries (CS1→US). Both groups then experienced one session of backward second-order conditioning of the training CS1 and a novel CS2 (CS1–CS2 pairing). Finally, the ability of CS2 to function as a conditioned reinforcer for a new instrumental response (leverpressing) was assessed. Consistent with the previous demonstrations of temporal integration in fear conditioning, a CS2 previously trained in a trace-conditioning protocol served as a better instrumental conditioned reinforcer after backward second-order conditioning than did a CS2 previously trained in a delay protocol. These results suggest that an instrumental conditioned reinforcer can be established via temporal integration and raise challenges for existing quantitative accounts of instrumental conditioned reinforcement. 相似文献
9.
Kenneth A. McNish Stephanie L. Betts Susan E. Brandon Allan R. Wagner 《Learning & behavior》1997,25(1):43-52
Two experiments of Pavlovian conditioning with rabbits evaluated the effects of initiating or continuing a conditioned stimulus (CS) after a paraorbital unconditioned stimulus (US). In Experiment 1, backward pairings, in which a CS came on after the US, produced a CS that appeared inhibitory on a measure of eyeblink conditioning but excitatory on a potentiated-startle measure of conditioned fear. In Experiment 2, extending the duration of a CS that came on prior to the US, so that it continued after the US, decreased eyeblink conditioned responses, whereas it increased conditioned fear. The data from the two experiments confirm and extend those of Tait and Saladin (1986), supporting the suppositions of AESOP (Wagner & Brandon, 1989) that conditioned eyeblink and conditioned fear can be dissociated under various temporal relationships between the CS and US. 相似文献
10.
Three experiments studied the counterconditioning of certain properties of eyeshock in rabbits by establishing the shock as an appetitive CS for a jaw-movement response reinforced by intraoral water injections in a Pavlovian conditioning procedure. Although Experiment 1 demonstrated that such appetitive conditioning did not attenuate the unconditioned eyeblink elicited by the shock, it reduced the capacity of the shock to suppress leverpress responses reinforced by direct water injections in a signaled punishment procedure in Experiment 2. By contrast, when instrumentally reinforced licking was punished by eyeshock in Experiment 3, no such reduction in the suppressive capacities of the shock was found. The results were considered in terms of whether counterconditioning alters the response-eliciting or motivational and reinforcing properties of the shock. 相似文献
11.
In three experiments, groups of albino rats received one strictly simultaneous pairing of a 4-sec auditory conditioned stimulus (CS) and a 4-sec 1-mA shock unconditioned stimulus (US). Other groups received a backward pairing, in which the US began before the CS, or a forward pairing, in which the CS began before the US. Control groups received only the US or received both the CS and the US but widely separated in time. Later, the CS was presented while the rats licked a drinking tube for water, and CS-elicited suppression of licking was taken as an index of the Pavlovian conditioned response (CR). It was found that groups receiving a single forward or a single simultaneous pairing suppressed more than groups that had received a backward pairing; and the backward groups, in turn, suppressed more than the control groups. It appears, then, that excitatory fear conditioning, as reflected in conditioned suppression of licking in rats, can be produced in a single trial by both backward and simultaneous conditioning procedures. 相似文献
12.
Following classical conditioning to a shock-reinforced tone CS (T1+), heart rate (HR) of three groups of rats was examined in response to a new reinforced tone (T2+) and a nonreinforced light (L?) CS given during conditioned inhibition (T2+ vs. T1L?), discrimination conditioning (T2+ vs. L?), or explicitly unpaired (T2/L? vs. US alone) procedures. Decelerative HR reactions occurred to the reinforced T2+ and T2+ CSs. To the respective nonreinforced CSs, the conditioned inhibition group displayed diminished but sizable HR deceleration, the discrimination group showed near-zero responding, and the explicitly upaired group showed HR acceleration. Subsequent reversal conditioning to L was retarded in the conditioned inhibition and explicitly unpaired groups relative to the discrimination group. Group differences on combined-cue [T2/L?) trials were not found. Both the HR responses during inhibitory training and the reversal-conditioning impairments suggest that inhibition may have been established to L? in the conditioned inhibition and explicitly unpaired groups. 相似文献
13.
Previous place conditioning studies in mice have shown that injection of ethanol immediately before a conditioned stimulus (CS+) produces conditioned preference, whereas injection of ethanol immediately after CS+ produces conditioned aversion. In the present experiments, we examined the learning that occurs when ethanol is injected in “ambiguous“ procedures that provide the opportunity for both types of conditioning. When ethanol was given midway through the CS (Experiments 1 and 2) or both before and after the CS (Experiment 3), the direction of place conditioning was the same as when mice were exposed only to whichever contingency occurred first (a primacy effect). That is, injection of ethanol in the middle of the CS conditioned aversion, whereas injection both before and after the CS conditioned preference. Because these results support the idea that ethanol elicits both aversive and rewarding effects, they are most consistent with conditioning theories that conceptualize unconditioned stimuli (USs) as events that can activate multiple representational components. 相似文献
14.
This article introduces a new "real-time" model of classical conditioning that combines attentional, associative, and "flexible" configural mechanisms. In the model, attention to both conditioned (CS) and configural (CN) stimuli are modulated by the novelty detected in the environment. Novelty increases with the unpredicted presence or absence of any CS, unconditioned stimulus (US), or context. Attention regulates the magnitude of the associations CSs and CNs form with other CSs and the US. We incorporate a flexible configural mechanism in which attention to the CN stimuli increases only after the model has unsuccessfully attempted learn input-output combinations with CS-US associations. That is, CSs become associated with the US and other CSs on fewer trials than they do CNs. Because the CSs activate the CNs through unmodifiable connections, a CS can become directly and indirectly (through the CN) associated with the US or other CSs. In order to simulate timing processes, we simply assume that a CS is formed by a temporal spectrum of short-duration CSs that are activated by the nominal CS trace. The model accurately describes 94?% of the basic properties of classical conditioning, using fixed model parameters and simulation values in all simulations. 相似文献
15.
Rats were trained to run up and down an alleyway for sucrose reinforcement on a variable interval schedule. Differential aversive classical conditioning with auditory CSs was then conducted in a separate apparatus (“off the baseline”) prior to those CSs being presented while the subjects were responding for sucrose in the alleyway. Once the effects of the CSs had extinguished, shock was reintroduced following one CS but not the other (“on the baseline” differential aversive classical conditioning). Both “off the baseline” and “on the baseline” conditioning resulted in conditioned suppression to the CS followed by shock, but little effect of the CS followed by no shock was found. In the “on the baseline” phase, total suppression of baseline responding occurred at moderate US intensities, and this appeared to result from the subject avoiding the location at which he was last shocked. At lower values, both baseline response rate and relative suppression ratio were functions of US intensity. The results are discussed in relation to the effects found in similar experiments using avoidance baselines. 相似文献
16.
D. A. Powell Charles M. Gibbs Brian Maxwell Dianne Levine-bryce 《Learning & behavior》1993,21(4):303-313
To determine whether the magnitude of heart rate (HR) slowing induced by classical conditioning contingencies is comparable under a broad range of stimulus conditions, experiments were conducted in which rabbits were exposed to tones, increases in illumination, or vibratory stimuli as conditioned stimuli (CSs) and in which paraorbital electric shocks, corneal airpuffs, or intraoral pulses of water served as unconditioned stimuli (USs). The results indicated that conditioned bradycardia was elicited by all three CSs. Moreover, when a corneal airpuff served as the US, small but reliable CS-evoked HR decelerations also occurred. Finally, CS-evoked HR slowing also occurred in response to a tone CS employed in an appetitive task, in which water was the US. These findings suggest that HR slowing is a general phenomenon that occurs when rabbits are exposed to signals that systematically predict aversive or appetitive consequences according to a Pavlovian conditioning paradigm. 相似文献
17.
In two experiments with rat subjects, we examined the effects of a retention interval on performance in two conditioning paradigms in which a conditioned stimulus (CS) was associated with different unconditioned stimuli (USs) in successive phases of the experiment- Experiment 1 was designed to examine aversive-appetitive transfer, in which the CS is associated with shock and then food; Experiment 2 was designed to examine appetitive-aversive transfer, in which the CS is associated with food and then shock. Aversive and appetitive conditioned responses (freezing and head-jerk responding, respectively) were scored from videotape. In both experiments, a 28-day retention interval following the end of Phase 2 caused a recovery of the Phase 1 response and a resuppression of the Phase 2 response. The results suggest that the original association is not destroyed when the CS is associated with a new US in Phase 2. They also suggest that both retroactive and proactive interference effects may result-from interference with performance output rather than a disruption or loss of what is learned during or stored from the target phase. 相似文献
18.
Richard V. Krane 《Learning & behavior》1980,8(4):513-523
The types of conditioned properties acquired by novel (i.e., nonpreexposed) or familiar (i.e., preexposed) exteroceptive cues that were paired with toxicosis, in the absence of a flavor CS, were evaluated in four experiments. In Experiment 1, the conditioned properties of novel exteroceptive cues served to block the acquisition of an aversion to a flavor CS during flavor conditioning and to suppress the ingestion response during flavor testing; animals failed to suppress their ingestion of either the flavor CS or a neutral flavor when tested in the absence of the exteroceptive CS, but suppressed their ingestion of both the flavor CS and the neutral flavor when tested in the presence of the exteroceptive CS. In Experiment 2, preexposed exteroceptive cues that had been paired with toxicosis failed to provide evidence of such conditioned properties. Experiment 3 demonstrated that preexposed contextual cues that were reinforced in compound with novel exteroceptive cues failed to acquire the conditioned properties acquired by nonpreexposed contextual cues under the same conditions of reinforcement. Finally, in Experiment 4, the conditioned properties of the novel exteroceptive cues served to evoke a conditioned gastrointestinal response that gradually extinguished as a function of repeated nonreinforced exposures to the exteroceptive cues, and, in the absence of such extinction, the conditioned properties served to block the acquisition of a flavor aversion. 相似文献
19.
Joint presentations of a conditioned stimulus (CS) and an unconditioned stimulus (US) strengthen the contingency between them, whereas presentations of one stimulus without the other degrade this contingency. For example, the CS can be presented without the US either before conditioning (CS–no US and then CS–US; latent inhibition) or after conditioning (CS–US and then CS–no US; extinction). In vertebrate subjects and several invertebrate species, a time lapse usually results in a return of the conditioned response, or spontaneous recovery. However, in land mollusks, spontaneous recovery from extinction has only recently been reported, and response recovery after latent inhibition has not been reported. In two experiments, using conditioned aversion to a food odor as a measure of learning and memory retention, we observed contingency degradation via latent inhibition (Experiment 1) and extinction (Experiment 2) in the common garden slug, Lehmannia valentiana. In both situations, the contingency degradation procedure successfully attenuated conditioned responding, and delaying testing by several days resulted in recovery of the conditioned response. This suggests that the CS–US association survived the degradation manipulation and was retained over an interval of several days. 相似文献
20.
SingleParamecium caudatum were conditioned by pairing ac-generated electric shock (US) with a vibratory stimulus (CS) produced by an auditory speaker. Naive paramecia subjected to shock reliably exhibited a backwards jerk and axial spinning similar to the avoiding reaction described by Jennings in 1904. Such responses did not occur initially to CS alone, but increasingly appeared during the CS period preceding shock pairing (delayed conditioning paradigm). Control subjects given the CS and UCS at the same intervals, but explicitly unpaired, did not show a sustained increase of responses to the CS alone. Short-term memory was demonstrated by subjects first conditioned and then presented CS alone during extinction. These subjects were readily reconditioned. Paramecia trained and stored for 24 h showed reliable memory savings as compared to stored control subjects. Other paramecia were differentially conditioned by training with two CSs. Following the recommendations of Rescorla (1967), a procedure was designed for truly random presentation of the CS and UCS as an additional control for pseudoconditioning. Single paramecia were conditioned with intervals between CSs randomly ranging from 8 to 32 sec. Control subjects received the same number of CSs and UCSs, which were administered independently and randomly during the same total session duration. Thus, CS and UCS were occasionally paired for control subjects. The responses to CS in the conditioned group were anticipatory conditional responses due to the pairing contingency and not wholly due to pseudoconditioning. 相似文献