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1.
Abstract

The purpose of this study was to describe and compare cardiac structure and function in adult male weight trainers, runners, and those who do both activities. Subjects had actively participated in the various training programs for the previous five years. Age ranged from 28.4 to 31.3 years in the three groups. Echocardiography was used to assess selected heart diameters, volumes, indices of contractility, and thicknesses, while VO2 max and percent body fat were measured using standard methods. Heart structure and function were expressed in absolute terms and relative to total body weight. An alpha level of .05 was used in all comparisons. Results indicated the runners demonstrated significantly greater relative LVIDd, LVIDs, and LVPW than the weight trainers. The runner/weight trainers possessed significantly greater relative LVIDd, LVIDs, LVPW, IVS, and LVEDV than the weight trainers. No significant differences, absolute or relative, existed between the runner and runner/weight trainer groups in any of the myocardial structure and function variables. It was concluded that men who run or run and weight train have similar structural and functional characteristics of the heart and possess greater relative internal diameter and left ventricular wall thickness than men who only weight train.  相似文献   

2.
The purpose of this study was to describe and compare cardiac structure and function in adult male weight trainers, runners, and those who do both activities. Subjects had actively participated in the various training programs for the previous five years. Age ranged from 28.4 to 31.3 years in the three groups. Echocardiography was used to assess selected heart diameters, volumes, indices of contractility, and thicknesses, while VO2 max and percent body fat were measured using standard methods. Heart structure and function were expressed in absolute terms and relative to total body weight. An alpha level of .05 was used in all comparisons. Results indicated the runners demonstrated significantly greater relative LVIDd, LVIDs, and LVPW than the weight trainers. The runner/weight trainers possessed significantly greater relative LVIDd, LVIDs, LVPW, IVS, and LVEDV than the weight trainers. No significant differences, absolute or relative, existed between the runner and runner/weight trainer groups in any of the myocardial structure and function variables. It was concluded that men who run or run and weight train have similar structural and functional characteristics of the heart and possess greater relative internal diameter and left ventricular wall thickness than men who only weight train.  相似文献   

3.
The purpose of the study was to compare young sprint and distance runners for changes in their cardiac dimensions with increased age (10–17 years) or body surface area (1–2 m2). Echocardiographic dimensions were obtained on 73 male track athletes competing in the 1983 National Age Group Track and Field Association championships. Each group of athletes was also compared with a hypothetical normal population (matched for weight and age) generated from prediction equations derived by Henry, Gardin, & Ware (1980). The cardiac dimensions examined were: Left ventricular internal diameter, left ventricular posterior wall thickness, and interventricular septum thickness. The male distance runners (n = 38) had a significantly greater increase in left ventricular posterior wall thickness and interventricular septum thickness with increasing age or increasing body surface area compared to the sprinters (n = 35) or compared to the predicted normal population. The left ventricular internal diameter was not significantly different between the groups. These results indicate that the hearts of male distance runners are undergoing a training hypertrophy whereas the hearts of sprinters are no different than hearts in a normal population. The changes in cardiac dimensions of these young athletes run counter to the generalizations stated for adult athletes: That endurance training enlarges the left ventricular internal diameter, but does not increase the left ventricular posterior wall or interventricular septum thickness.  相似文献   

4.
目的探讨有氧运动对大鼠心脏交感神经和β-AR受体表达的影响。方法 3月龄雄性Sprague-Dawley大鼠24只,随机分为2组:安静对照组(C)和有氧运动组(E)。跑台训练方式建立大鼠有氧运动模型,多导生理记录仪测试大鼠血流动力学指标,免疫组化SABC和Western Blot法观察测试心脏交感神经和β-AR受体3个亚型的分布和表达情况。结果有氧运动可显著降低大鼠心率(HR)和左室末期舒张压(LVEDP),显著性升高左室内压峰值(LVSP)和左室内压最大上升速率(±dP/dt max);有氧运动可显著增加大鼠左心室交感神经分布,促进交感神经新生,显著增加β1-AR密度;显著降低β3-AR密度。结论有氧运动提升心功能与交感神经适度增生、心肌细胞β1-AR上调和β3-AR下调表达关系密切。  相似文献   

5.
目的：探讨间歇性低氧运动对肥胖及正常SD大鼠骨骼肌线粒体解偶联蛋白-3表达的影响。方法：将100只雄性健康大鼠随机分为正常对照组（40只）和肥胖造模组（60只），从造模成功的SD大鼠中挑选40只，随机分为肥胖常氧安静组（A组）、肥胖常氧运动组（B组）、肥胖低氧安静组（C组）和肥胖低氧运动组（D组）。正常对照组随机分为正常常氧安静组（E组）、正常常氧运动组（F组）、正常低氧运动组（G组）和正常低氧安静组（H组），每组10只。第4周末次运动后24h左右进行采样，采样前所有大鼠禁食过夜，取后肢骨骼肌匀浆提取线粒体，用western blot的方法测定肥胖大鼠以及正常组大鼠的骨骼肌线粒体UCP3的蛋白表达水平。结果：正常组大鼠骨骼肌线粒体UCP3蛋白表达明显高于造模组大鼠（P〈0．05）；低氧安静及运动组大鼠骨骼肌线粒体UCP3蛋白的表达均明显高于常氧安静组（P〈0．05）；低氧或运动对大鼠骨骼肌线粒体UCP3蛋白的表达的影响与大鼠的体脂百分比有呈负相关的趋势。结论：肥胖大鼠骨骼肌线粒体UCP3蛋白的表达低于正常大鼠，4周的有氧运动以及间歇性低氧刺激使骨骼肌线粒体UCP3蛋白的表达增加，运动与间歇性低氧刺激相结合能使骨骼肌线粒体UCP3的表达水平高于单一的运动或间歇性低氧刺激。而且，低氧刺激以及低氧刺激与运动相结合使得大鼠的体重、体脂百分比降低幅度比单一的运动更加明显。  相似文献   

6.
ABSTRACT

The aims of this study were to perform the cross-cultural adaptation of the Borg Rating of Perceived Exertion (RPE) 6–20 Scale to Brazilian Portuguese language and to start testing its validity and reliability. After performing the cross-cultural adaptation of the Scale, concurrent and discriminative validity, and reliability were determined on a treadmill in young (18–30 years) and older adult women (60–75 years). Considering young and older adult women, RPE presented high and moderate positive correlation with heart rate and high and low positive correlation with oxygen consumption, respectively. Older adult women presented RPE (11 ± 2) significantly higher than young ones (8 ± 1) exercising at the same absolute intensity. Intraclass coefficient correlation was excellent for RPE to young and older adult women. The Scale presented concurrent validity only to young adult women, whereas it presented discriminative validity between such groups of women. Moreover, the scale is reliable to young and older adult women.  相似文献   

7.
包蕾  刘卉  高维纬 《中国体育科技》2020,(2):39-45,F0003
目的:描述艺术体操运动员在日常状况下和完成专项动作时脊柱异常的表现及左右对称性,探讨与之相关的因素。方法:以9名艺术体操运动员为研究对象,进行站立位脊柱X光片拍摄,获得脊柱额状面和矢状面的弯曲方向和角度;使用三维摄像方法定量评价运动员完成后搬腿动作和侧搬腿动作时的脊柱活动幅度;运用后伸肌群和双侧屈肌群测试系统对运动员的坐姿躯干后伸和双侧侧屈等长收缩力量进行测试。比较躯干活动幅度和躯干肌肉力量的左右对称性,比较不同脊柱侧凸方向间躯干活动差异。检验脊柱弯曲角度与躯干活动特征的相关性。结果:后搬左侧腿时的活动幅度显著小于后搬右侧腿(P<0.01),对应躯干向左扭转的幅度显著大于向右扭转幅度(P<0.05)。侧搬腿时躯干活动幅度越大对应的躯干扭转角度越大。胸曲角度与右侧搬腿活动幅度角存在正相关(P<0.05),与右侧搬腿躯干扭转角之间为显著负相关(P<0.05),腰曲角度与左侧搬腿活动幅度角之间存在显著正相关(P<0.05),与右侧搬腿躯干扭转角之间存在显著负相关(P<0.05)。肌肉力量方面,胸曲角度越大,3个位置躯干后伸力矩峰值越小。侧屈力量上,运动员绝大多数角度下的右屈力量显著大于左屈力量。胸曲角度、腰°曲角度分°别与不同躯干侧屈角度下右屈力矩峰值存在显著负相关。腰曲角度与左屈0、15°、30和右屈15°位置的躯干左屈力矩峰值存在显著负相关。结论:艺术体操运动员躯干两侧活动度和肌肉力量存在不对称,后伸幅度左侧大于右侧,侧屈肌力右侧大于左侧;但这种不对称与脊柱额状面上异常弯曲无明显关系;集中于躯干右侧和躯干后伸动作的训练,可能是导致胸曲变直的原因。  相似文献   

8.
低氧训练过程中大鼠体重及能量代谢的变化   总被引：1，自引：0，他引：1  
目的：研究低氧训练过程中大鼠体重、体成分、能量摄入及静息代谢率的变化，初步探讨低氧训练过程中大鼠体重变化与能量代谢变化间关系。方法：经过适应性训练筛选出的50只SD大鼠平均分为5组，保证每组大鼠体重基本一致，随机分为常氧安静组、常氧限食组、常氧训练组、低氧安静组、低氧训练组。训练组大鼠采用水平动物跑台进行耐力训练6周。试验期间每周称量大鼠体重，每3天称量一次大鼠食物摄入量。试验前、试验1周、3周、5周末测定大鼠静息代谢率，试验后处死大鼠并剥离其肾周、腹股沟脂肪及腓肠肌，称量其重量。结果：低氧训练组大鼠体重增幅除在第6周末与常氧训练组无显著性差异外，均显著性低于其他试验组，试验前3周其体重出现负增长。试验后低氧训练组大鼠肾周及腹股沟脂肪总含量显著低于其他试验组，而腓肠肌重量与其他组无显著性差异。低氧训练组大鼠试验期间总食物摄入量较其他各组大鼠低，尤其在前3周。低氧训练组大鼠静息代谢率先上升而后逐渐下降，至试验3周末时仍高于试验前值，试验5周末时降至低于试验前值（差异不显著），而除低氧安静组外的其他组大鼠静息代谢率则持续下降，至试验5周末时均显著性低于试验前水平。结论：从减缓体重增加幅度及对体成分的影响角度看，低氧训练减体重的效果优于限制饮食、耐力训练及低氧暴露。低氧训练过程中食物摄入量减少及静息代谢率增加可能是大鼠体重增长减缓的原因。  相似文献   

9.
Abstract

Sidney and Shephard (1973) were the first to report on the morphology of slalom paddlers and characterized them as having “a substantial standing height and lean body mass, good general muscle development with particular emphasis on the leg muscles”. The purpose of this study was to analyse the morphological characteristics of Olympic slalom kayak and canoe paddlers to determine whether they possess unique physique or structural characteristics that provide an advantage for their sport. Thirty-one male and 12 female slalom paddlers were measured using a battery of 36 anthropometric dimensions in the 15-day period before competition at the 2000 Olympic Games. Male slalom paddlers were older, lighter, shorter, and leaner than previously reported slalom paddlers and had similar height and weight to a reference population of non-athletes. Compared with Olympic sprint paddlers, male slalom paddlers were older, lighter and shorter, and had similar body fat and almost identical proportionality characteristics. Female slalom paddlers were taller, lighter, older, and less fat than those reported previously. They were taller and lighter than the reference population of non-athletes and of similar age and height but lighter and leaner than the Olympic sprint paddlers. While a high brachial index was reported for both male and female slalom paddlers, the Best male paddlers (those ranked in the top 10 placings) were more compact, had smaller proportional hip girth, and showed a tendency for smaller proportional hip breadth but a larger proportional waist girth than the Rest (those not ranked in the top 10 placings). Changes to the technical aspect of the events and to competition rules and the nature and approach to training were explored as possible reasons for some of these differences. We outline the contribution this research makes to talent identification and highlight the need for further research.  相似文献   

10.
Abstract

The relative length of the second and fourth digits (2D:4D) is a putative marker for prenatal testosterone. Low 2D:4D has been reported to correlate with high performance in sport in general. Here, for the first time, we examine the relationship between 2D:4D and performance in elite rugby players. The 44 players (28 forwards, 16 backs) were drawn from the Ospreys Rugby Union Club and 44 age-matched controls. The measures of performance comprised age-adjusted number of international performances (caps) for Wales, a comparison of coaches' first-choice League team with others, and the number of tries scored by backs in club matches. Compared with controls, players were larger and had lower 2D:4D for the right and left hand. With regard to number of caps, players with low 2D:4D in their right hand and low right 2D:4D compared with their left (right ? left 2D:4D difference) had high numbers of caps. First-choice players did not differ significantly from second-choice players in their 2D:4D but they did have a lower right ? left 2D:4D difference than second-choice players. Low right 2D:4D and low right ? left 2D:4D difference were significantly linked with large numbers of tries. We conclude that low right 2D:4D and low right ? left 2D:4D difference are predictors of high rugby performance.  相似文献   

11.
Abstract

The experiment was designed to (a) examine age-related differences in the control of aiming movements, and (b) determine the locus of slowing in movement execution of older adults. Fitts's (1954) index of difficulty (ID) was used to manipulate movement execution demands, and kinematics were used to examine the response characteristics. Twelve young and 12 older adults performed simple aiming movements 10 cm or 20 cm in amplitude to targets of 0.5 cm, 1.0 cm, or 2.0 cm in width, resulting in IDs ranging from 3.32 to 6.32. The results for both young and older subjects support the prediction that movement time (MT) increases as a function of ID and that older adults are significantly slower and more affected by increases in ID than the young adults. Velocity and acceleration profiles of the older adults' movements displayed very different response characteristics than those of the young adults. The results suggest that older adults emphasize accuracy of response and are concerned with the latter phase of the movement in order to contact a target accurately.  相似文献   

12.
In order to investigate further the use of standardization procedures to determine training effects on cardiac dimension and function, two groups of subjects were analysed noninvasively. A control group of sedentary men (n = 7) and an experimental group of weight lifters (n = 12) volunteered for a standard M-mode echocardiographic assessment. Indices of cardiac function as well as absolute left ventricular dimensions and left ventricular mass were similar between the groups. Standardizing for body surface area and body weight separated the groups. The weight lifters were shown to have a more muscular left ventricular posterior wall. The weight lifters also demonstrated a dilated left ventricle when indexing for body surface area. All other dimensional and volumetric indices were non-significant. The present investigation underlines the need for matching control and experimental groups to biometric variables in order to avoid misinterpreting cardiac enlargement. There is evidence for a true relative hypertrophy in weight lifters as indicated by similar absolute cardiac dimensions and similar biometric variables. Therefore, when evaluating athletes engaged in a chronic pressure overload, cardiac hypertrophy indices should consider body surface area (BSA), body weight and lean body weight (LBW). Future work in this field should incorporate rigorous controls on all biometric variables for better interpretation of hypertrophy in relative or absolute terms.  相似文献   

13.
力竭运动大鼠心肌心钠素表达的变化   总被引：36，自引：4，他引：36  
为了探讨力竭运动对大鼠心脏心钠素表达的影响,采用４月龄雄性ＸＤ大鼠,体重２２０ｇ－３６０ｇ,随机分为（１）正常对照组（Ａ组）,（２）有训练游泳力竭组（Ｂ组）、（３）无训练游力竭组（Ｃ组）,每组各１４只。灌注后取出整心,用免疫组化ＡＢＣ法,结果是：心钠素免疫阳性反应为：右心耳〉右心房〉左心房〉右心室近心房处,与Ａ组相比,Ｂ组大鼠心房肌心钠素阳性择应明显增强,心钠素电子致密颗粒大量增加;Ｃ组大鼠心房钠  相似文献   

14.
Abstract

Sixty-two elite adolescent (age: 16.39 ± 1.62 yrs) female track and field athletes volunteered to be measured isokinetically for peak torque of the leg flexors and extensors. The sample included 16 throwers, 11 jumpers, 12 middle-distance runners (> 400 m), and 23 sprinters. A Cybex II isokinetic dynamometer was used to measure dominant leg strength at 180°/sec. One-way ANOVA revealed significant between group differences for absolute flexion and extension (Nm), extension/body weight (Nm/Kg), and extension/lean body weight (Nm/Kg). Scheffe post-hoc comparisons showed that, for absolute leg extension strength, throwers were stronger than middle-distance runners (by 54.4%), sprinters (35.6%), and jumpers (23.6%). For absolute leg flexion movements, throwers were stronger than middle distance runners (37.4%) and sprinters (32.1%). Jumpers had greater extension peak torque values than middle-distance runners relative to body weight (14.0%), and throwers were stronger than middle-distance runners for extension/lean body weight (14.9%)). No other comparisons were significant. However, when strength was expressed relative to body weight or lean body weight, there were few differences between events for flexion or extension. Given that absolute strength scores were correlated with body weight and lean body weight, peak torque/body weight or peak torque/lean body weight may be more sensitive than absolute values as indicators of underlying factors (such as training status or fiber type composition) responsible for the differences in muscular strength between groups.  相似文献   

15.
为了探讨运动心脏机能改变的形态学基础,本文对经过耐力训练的实验大鼠心室肌及毛细血管超微结构进行了常规电镜观察和显微图象计量分析。结果表明,耐力训练后心室肌细胞中线粒体数量增多,线粒体内膜和嵴增多,心肌毛细血管数量增多,毛细血管内皮细胞功能结构增多,心肌细胞最大氧气弥散距离缩短,有利于心肌的氧气运输和能量代谢过程。  相似文献   

16.
High-altitude exposure challenges the cardiovascular system to maintain oxygen delivery to the mitochondria under conditions of hypoxic stress. Following acclimatisation (3–5 days), stroke volume (SV) falls to below sea-level values but heart rate remains elevated, such that cardiac output is maintained compared to sea level. The decrease in SV has been a topic of research for over 40 years, but the underlying mechanisms are incompletely understood. Impaired systolic contractile function secondary to reduced coronary arterial oxygen tension has been investigated as a potential cause for the decrease in SV. However, despite in vitro evidence of impaired cardiac contractile force in severe hypoxia, the majority of studies to date have reported enhanced in vivo ventricular systolic function at rest and during exercise in humans up to and above 5000?m. However, the elevated function observed at rest has recently been suggested to reduce the functional reserve available during exercise. While in vivo systolic function appears enhanced at high altitude, a decrease in left ventricular end-diastolic volume (EDV) and altered filling patterns of both ventricles has been observed. The reduction in ventricular filling will undoubtedly affect SV, and four potential mechanisms have been proposed to explain the reduction in left ventricular filling. In this article, both historical and recent reports of systolic function at high altitude will be reviewed, and evidence supporting and refuting each of the four mechanisms underpinning reduced left ventricular filling will be discussed.  相似文献   

17.
In this study,we investigated resting left ventricular dimensions and function in trained female rowers, canoeists and cyclists. In male populations, such athletes have demonstrated the largest left ventricular wall thicknesses and cavity dimensions. Echocardiograms were analysed from 24 athletes (rowers and canoeists, n=12; cyclists, n=12) and 21 age-matched controls to measure left ventricular end-diastolic dimension and volume, and septal (ST) and posterior wall (PWT) thicknesses. Left ventricular mass was calculated from M-mode data. Systolic and diastolic function were calculated from M-mode and Doppler echocardiography, respectively. Height, body mass, body surface area and fat-free mass were determined anthropometrically. The athletes were well matched with the controls for all anthropometric variables except fat-free mass (rowers and canoeists 49.7 3.6 kg, cyclists 48.0?+\- 3.8 kg, controls 45.0?+\- 5.4 kg; P < 0.05). The left ventricular end-diastolic dimension, mass and volume, and septal and posterior wall thicknesses, were all significantly greater in the athletes than the controls (P < 0.05). These differences persisted (except for left ventricular end-diastolic dimension) even after allometric adjustment for group differences in fat-free mass. Stroke volume was larger (rowers and canoeists 102?+\- 13 ml, cyclists 103?+\0 16 ml, controls 80?+\- 15 ml; P < 0.05) in both groups of athletes but all other functional data were similar between groups. As in male athletes, female rowers, canoeists and cyclists displayed significantly larger left ventricular cavity dimensions and wall thicknesses than controls.  相似文献   

18.
目的:通过建立肥胖大鼠低氧训练模型,观察比目鱼肌糖有氧代谢关键酶的基因表达水平,探讨低氧训练对肥胖大鼠有氧代谢能力的影响。方法:出生21天的离乳雄性SD大鼠,经高脂饲料喂养10周、肥胖模型验证成功后,继续高脂饲料喂养2周,筛选130只随机分为13组:对照0周组,低氧安静1、2、3、4周组,常氧训练1、2、3、4周组,低氧训练1、2、3、4周组。低氧环境模拟海拔3 500m(氧浓度13.6%);常氧和低氧训练组分别以25m/min、20m/min进行跑台训练,各训练组持续运动1h/d、6d/w、1～4w。采用荧光定量PCR法测试比目鱼肌组织CS-2、NAD+-IDH3α、DLST-2mRNA表达水平。结果:1)常氧训练组第1、3周CS-2mRNA相对表达量较第2周显著升高(P<0.05),低氧安静组第3周较第1周显著降低(P<0.05)。第3周时低氧安静组、低氧训练组较常氧训练组显著降低(P<0.01或P<0.05)。2)常氧训练组、低氧安静组第2、3、4周NAD+-IDH3αmRNA相对表达量较0周显著升高(P<0.01或P<0.05),低氧训练组第1、2、4周较0周显著升高(P<0.05或P<0.01)。第1周时低氧安静组、低氧训练组较常氧训练组显著升高(P<0.01);第4周时低氧训练组较常氧训练组、低氧安静组显著升高(P<0.05或P<0.01)。3)常氧训练组第2、3、4周DLST-2mRNA相对表达量较0、1周显著降低(P<0.05或P<0.01),低氧安静组、低氧训练组第1、2、3、4周较0周显著降低(P<0.01);第1、3周时低氧安静组、低氧训练组较常氧训练组显著下降(P<0.05或P<0.01);第2周时低氧训练组较常氧训练组显著升高(P<0.05)。结论:1)4周低氧训练可逆转肥胖大鼠比目鱼肌由于低氧导致的CS-2mRNA表达的下降,以提高机体的有氧代谢能力。2)4周低氧训练上调肥胖大鼠比目鱼肌NAD+-IDH3αmRNA表达的作用强于常氧训练和低氧安静,可在一定程度上提高机体的有氧代谢能力。3)4周低氧训练、常氧训练和低氧安静均下调肥胖大鼠比目鱼肌DLST-2mRNA表达,可能在一定程度上影响机体的有氧代谢能力。  相似文献   

19.
In this study, we investigated resting left ventricular dimensions and function in trained female rowers, canoeists and cyclists. In male populations, such athletes have demonstrated the largest left ventricular wall thicknesses and cavity dimensions. Echocardiograms were analysed from 24 athletes (rowers and canoeists, n = 12; cyclists, n = 12) and 21 age-matched controls to measure left ventricular end-diastolic dimension and volume, and septal (ST) and posterior wall (PWT) thicknesses. Left ventricular mass was calculated from M-mode data. Systolic and diastolic function were calculated from M-mode and Doppler echocardiography, respectively. Height, body mass, body surface area and fat-free mass were determined anthropometrically. The athletes were well matched with the controls for all anthropometric variables except fat-free mass (rowers and canoeists 49.7+/-3.6 kg, cyclists 48.0+/-3.8 kg, controls 45.0+/-5.4 kg; P < 0.05). The left ventricular end-diastolic dimension, mass and volume, and septal and posterior wall thicknesses, were all significantly greater in the athletes than the controls (P < 0.05). These differences persisted (except for left ventricular end-diastolic dimension) even after allometric adjustment for group differences in fat-free mass. Stroke volume was larger (rowers and canoeists 102+/-13 ml, cyclists 103+/-16 ml, controls 80+/-15 ml; P < 0.05) in both groups of athletes but all other functional data were similar between groups. As in male athletes, female rowers, canoeists and cyclists displayed significantly larger left ventricular cavity dimensions and wall thicknesses than controls.  相似文献   

20.
Abstract

This study evaluated the influence of biological and environmental variables on the differences between the throwing performance of 5-year-old girls and boys. A total of 100 children (48 girls, 52 boys) were tested on throwing for distance and rated on two components of throwing form—trunk rotation, and foot action. Children were evaluated on eight biological characteristics—height, weight, body mass index, ponderal index, sum of four skinfolds, body diameters, arm and leg girths, and somatotypes—and four environmental characteristics—older brother, older sister, presence of adult male, and playing with older children. Results indicated that boys threw farther than girls and exhibited more mature form. Boys had greater joint diameters than girls, a smaller sum of four skinfolds, and more estimated arm muscle. Boys were more likely to play regularly with older children. Girls' throwing performance was only 57% that of boys, but when throwing was adjusted for a linear composite of biological variables, girls' throwing performance increased to 69% of boys'. Thus, while the differences in most motor performance tasks between boys and girls prior to puberty have been attributed to environmental factors, some of the differences in throwing performance appears to reflect biological characteristics, even as early as 5 years of age.  相似文献   

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