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1.
Abstract

Effects of movement context upon the encoding of kinesthetic spatial location information were examined in a series of experiments using a motor learning paradigm. A cross-modal, kinesthetic to kinesthetic plus visual feedback procedure was used in each experiment to determine the encoding characteristics of spatial information within a variety of movement conditions. Following knowledge of results trials, subjects performing in cross-modal conditions had significant directional errors (overshooting of the target) for spatial locations associated with specific and non-specific body-referents (Experiment 1), for different movement directions to the same target (Experiment 2), and for long (40 cm) movements (Experiments 2, 3) and short (15 cm) movements (Experiment 4). However, subjects in both intermodal and intramodal conditions who switched movement direction had significant undershooting of the spatial targets (Experiment 3). Movement context in terms of response endpoint location or movement length did not have an apparent effect on directional errors. Performances in all experimental conditions were biased in the direction of the movement during learning. The context provided by movement direction did influence the encoding of kinesthetic spatial information.  相似文献   

2.
Abstract

The purpose of this study was to determine the usefulness of the components of a knowledge of results (KR) statement for organizing response correction. Forty-eight subjects learned to move a handle to a criterion location on a linear positioning apparatus. Error direction and distance components of the KR statement were manipulated across four independent groups. Two 4 × 15 Analyses of Variances were calculated on absolute error (AE) and constant error (CE) scores. The groups main effect, trials main effect, and the interaction groups × trials effect were significant for both analyses. Groups receiving directional information were more accurate in error correction than was the distance only group. Manipulation of distance information also influenced error correction on the initial trials. The results were interpreted as an indication that the learner's initial error corrections are based on directional information and that the distance of the error information which initially lacks meaning interferes with initial response accuracy.  相似文献   

3.
Abstract

The purpose of this study was to examine the role of selective attention in rhythmic response of children. A motor rhythmic response of grade 2 (N = 30) and grade 4 (N = 29) boys was examined with respect to the sensory modality of a secondary stimulus input. It is thought that the information processing capacity of children, as manifested in the processes of selective attention, may be a factor in the developmental changes in motor skill learning and performance. Using a rhythmic analysis system, subjects in each grade level performed ten blocks of five trials in one of three groups: control, audio interference, and visual interference. Output from a dual-channel recorder was scored to give time and space errors (AE and CE). Performance variation (VE) was calculated from the error scores. Multivariate analysis of variance revealed significantly better performance by the grade 4 subjects. The treatment conditions did not significantly impair performance as measured by CE error scores. The audio input resulted in significantly less consistent temporal performance (VE).  相似文献   

4.
Abstract

This study aimed at supporting the specificity of learning hypothesis, when aiming was based on internal cues, as directing the hand toward a “self-defined” target location. Participants practiced modest (20 trials) or intensive (720 trials) training with visual and proprioceptive information or proprioceptive information only. Pretests and posttests were performed in sensory conditions that did or did not match the training condition. Results showed that dynamic visual cues played a dominant role at the beginning of the task, and an intensive practice resulted in increased accuracy of kinesthetic information and efferent mechanisms of motor responses. These results have implications with regard to motor learning conceptions and training as a function of the task constraints.  相似文献   

5.
Abstract

This study was an investigation of the course of learning a specified arm movement pattern under conditions that varied as to the type and frequency of feedback information. After several days of practice, subjects performed a criterion test which was the same as the learning movement pattern, but explicit visual feedback was withdrawn.

Forty undergraduate students were divided into five groups. Each group was randomly assigned a method of learning the task. The methods of receiving information about performance were as follows: (a) concurrent visual feedback, (b) concurrent proprioceptive feedback and terminal knowledge of graphs, (c) a combination of (a) and (b), (d) concurrent visual feedback interspersed with passive watching, and (e) concurrent visual feedback at two different speeds.

The results indicated the following: (a) the most effective variable for learning the pattern was concurrent visual feedback, (b) performing the movement at a slower than normal rate was detrimental to performance on the criterion test, (c) sitting and watching was as effective a learning method as performing at two speeds, and (d) subjects in the slow-standard speed group were significantly poorer than subjects in other groups during performance of the criterion test. The other methods did not differ significantly from each other.  相似文献   

6.
Abstract

Two studies investigated the effects of delayed visual feedback on manual tracking. In Experiment 1, individuals practiced with visual feedback provided either immediately (0 delay) or with a 333-ms delay. During acquisition, the 0 delay group performed with less error than the 333-ms delay group. A retention test with 0 delay feedback was performed with the least error by the 0 delay group. A transfer test using a different 0 delay tracking pattern, was performed with the least error by the 333-ms delay group. In Experiment 2, individuals practiced at six different delays. Error increased as training feedback delay increased. For retention there were no differences between the delay groups during the 0 delay retention. At a 417-ms retention, test error decreased as training feedback delay increased. Results indicate that error during acquisition does not necessarily impair learning and that feedback delays can be beneficial for learning.  相似文献   

7.
Abstract

The present study was undertaken to determine if the presence of spectators when learning a complex motor task affected the performance of high- and low-anxious subjects. Forty-eight high- and 48 low-anxious subjects learned a coincident timing task alone or in the presence of an audience. Once the task was learned to a criterion, subjects performed 10 trials alone or in the presence of an audience. Palmar sweat gland activity was measured by counting the number of active sweat glands from a plastic mold. Absolute error found the mode of learning had no effect on performance. Absolute error intravariance, however, indicated that subjects who learned the task in the presence of an audience performed less consistently alone than subjects who performed in the presence of an audience. The anxiety level of the subject did not interact with the performance. Palmar sweat gland results showed increased arousal when in the presence of an audience.  相似文献   

8.
This study aimed at supporting the specificity of learning hypothesis, when aiming was based on internal cues, as directing the hand toward a "self-defined" target location. Participants practiced modest (20 trials) or intensive (720 trials) training with visual and proprioceptive information or proprioceptive information only. Pretests and posttests were performed in sensory conditions that did or did not match the training condition. Results showed that dynamic visual cues played a dominant role at the beginning of the task, and an intensive practice resulted in increased accuracy of kinesthetic information and efferent mechanisms of motor responses. These results have implications with regard to motor learning conceptions and training as a function of the task constraints.  相似文献   

9.
Abstract

Schmidt's (1975) schema theory was tested with subjects who had to emit a rapid aiming response while wearing prism glasses. The glasses enabled them to view the target, but not their responding limb or the outcome of the movement. The problem was to determine the effect of (a) training with variable target practice, and (b) experiencing visual displacement information of the target, prior to training, on performance in transfer to a novel target distance. A 2 × 2 (type of practice × displacement information) factorial design was used, in which four groups of 15 male college subjects performed 60 training trials with verbal knowledge of results. The groups with variable target practice had less error on initial transfer to the novel target and throughout transfer than the groups with nonvariable target practice. No evidence was found to indicate that rate of learning for a novel target distance during transfer in the absence of KR is a positive function of the variability of target practice in training. Nor was any effect found for experiencing visual displacement information on performance in transfer.  相似文献   

10.
Abstract

This study investigated the effects of three different amounts of practice in combination with two types of variable practice conditions upon schema development. Seventy-two subjects were administered either 6, 18, or 36 trials while learning to move to either one- or three-criteria goals on the linear positioning task. Subjects then had 18 no-KR (knowledge of results) trials to produce a novel response. The statistical analysis revealed a significant three-way interaction for absolute error while no significant main or interaction effects existed for constant or variable error. Analysis of the simple main effects showed that the various amounts of practice produced similar performances for the subjects learning to move to only one criterion goal. For the subjects learning to move to three criteria goals during initial practice, the amount of practice provided was a significant factor in the accuracy and strength of the motor schema. Partial support is presented for schema theory.  相似文献   

11.
Abstract

In an attempt to investigate the effects of physical fatigue upon the learning of a motor skill, 75 college women were assigned in systematic rotation to either a control group or to one of two experimental groups (N = 25 in each group). All subjects were given a total of 50 trials on the pursuit rotor: 25 trials on Day 1, the practice session; and 25 trials on Day 2, the test session. One of the experimental groups was fatigued early in the practice session while the other was fatigued late in the practice session. Fatigue interpolated early and late was detrimental to subsequent performance improvements but had no effect upon the amount learned.  相似文献   

12.
Abstract

The purpose of this research was to investigate the modifications in the control of the biceps brachii (agonist) and triceps brachii (antagonist) muscles during the learning of two elbow flexion tasks in sixteen college-age women. A positioning and a coincidence task were each performed at 40° and 200° per second angular velocity while bipolar surface electrodes recorded the electromyographic (EMG) activity of the muscles involved. Data on the EMG activity, angular kinematics, and timing and angular displacement error were quantified and subjected to statistical analyses. The results of the error analyses indicated that subjects did learn the various tasks over the 120 trials. Because there were no significant changes in the angular velocity patterns over trials, the EMG activity modifications are suggested to reflect differences in the control of the muscles monitored during the movements. In addition, EMG activity pattern modifications which occurred in discrete portions of the movements in both muscles indicate an increased cocontraction of the opposing muscles as subjects learned the tasks. Temporal periods in which modifications were observed appear to represent the critical periods in each movement task.  相似文献   

13.
This study aimed at assessing the interaction between subjective error estimation and frequency of extrinsic feedback in the learning of the basketball free shooting pattern by children. 10- to 12-year olds were assigned to 1 of 4 groups combining subjective error estimation and relative frequency of extrinsic feedback (33% × 100%). Analysis of performance was based on quality of movement pattern. Analysis showed superior learning of the group combining error estimation and 100% feedback frequency, both groups receiving feedback on 33% of trials achieved intermediate results, and the group combining no requirement of error estimation and 100% feedback frequency had the poorest learning. Our results show the benefit of subjective error estimation in association with high frequency of extrinsic feedback in children’s motor learning of a sport motor pattern.  相似文献   

14.
Abstract

Self-control over factors involving task-related information (e.g., feedback) can enhance motor learning. It is unknown if these benefits extend to manipulations that do not directly affect such information. The purpose of this study was to determine if self-control over the amount of practice would also facilitate learning. Participants learned to throw a dart using their nonpreferred hand. The self-control (SC) group decided when to stop practice. The yoked group completed the same number of trials as their SC counterparts. Results revealed the SC group was more accurate during transfer and in recalling the number of trials completed. These findings indicate that self-control benefits extend to factors that do not directly alter task-related information.  相似文献   

15.
Abstract

For this study, we investigated the effects of self-controlled practice on learning multiple motor skills. Thirty participants were randomly assigned to self-control or yoked conditions. Participants learned a three-keystroke pattern with three different relative time structures. Those in the self-control group chose one of three relative time structures before each of 90 practice trials; yoked participants were not allowed to choose but were yoked to a self-control participant and followed that individual's sequence of practice trials. Results of the 24-hr serial transfer test revealed the self-control group exhibited significantly lower relative timing error, absolute error, and total error than the yoked group. Findings further support the efficacy of self-controlled learning.  相似文献   

16.
Abstract

The effect of designated learning strategies and reflective versus impulsive cognitive styles on performance in a maze learning task was investigated. Twenty-four female subjects were randomly assigned to a strategy or control group. The strategies group was provided with three potentially effective strategies (imagery, rhythm, and feedback) as identified by an information processing task analysis procedure. The Matching Familiar Figures test further classified subjects within the two groups according to their preferred styles of responding. Eleven primary task trials were administered with direct view of maze and four related task trials were completed with an indirect view of it. Traversal speed and time in the incorrect pathways were analyzed with a 2 × 2 × 7 (Strategies × Cognitive Styles × Trial Blocks) repeated measures ANOVA. A significant three-way interaction was found for both dependent measures. As hypothesized, during the primary task the control reflective subjects traversed the maze more slowly than the control impulsive subjects. However, the strategies reflective subjects completed the maze with the same speed as strategies impulsives. The incorrect pathways × time interaction revealed that the control reflective subjects spent less time in the incorrect pathways during the related task than the control impulsives. No significant differences were found for strategies reflectives or impulsives. These findings indicate that, for this maze task that emphasized speed, the performance of reflective and impulsive subjects was facilitated by appropriate learning strategies.  相似文献   

17.
Abstract

Twelve trials on a stabilometer task were administered to 100 educable mentally retarded children whose IQs ranged from 55 to 80 and whose mean age was 12.6 years. Four groups were trained under different supplementary auditory or visual feedback conditions while a fifth group was trained under control conditions. Using the mean time-in-balance (TIB) as the criterion measure, there were no initial performance differences among groups. Significant TIB performance differences among groups were demonstrated during the supplementary feedback training sessions; the visual/in-balance group demonstrated performance superiority. Final performance measures, obtained after withdrawal from the feedback conditions, were compared among groups; the visual/in-balance group maintained performance superiority over all other study groups. Comparisons within groups, from initial to final performance, indicated that only the control group failed to demonstrate significant performance gains and, therefore, did not acquire the task. The findings showed that only when supplementary auditory and visual feedback training techniques were employed did stabilometer performance improve significantly. The performance superiority of the visual/in-balance condition over all other conditions leads to the conclusion that the supplementary visual feedback technique as a reinforcement to correct responding has the greatest effect on the acquisition of the stabilometer task by educable, mentally retarded children.  相似文献   

18.
Abstract

The effects of Mosston's teaching styles B, C and E were examined in terms of motor skill acquisition and social skill development of fifth grade children. Ninety-six children, randomly selected and randomly assigned to one of three treatment groups, were taught a hockey accuracy task. Motor performance data were collected prior to, midway through, and following training; they were analyzed within groups, to determine if learning was evident, and across groups, to examine the relative effectiveness of these three styles of teaching. Social behavior patterns observed during learner-to-learner interaction were also examined during a second task in which pairs of learners were asked to “help” each other learn the task. A 3 × 3 analysis of variance with repeated measures revealed that (1) all three groups learned the task and (2) they learned comparably well. It was concluded that these three styles of teaching are all effective in facilitating learning of this type of motor task. Style C, an arrangement in whcih learners work in pairs, one performing the task while being provided with formative feedback by the other, was found not only to produce comparable learning, but to significantly enhance social skill development on those behaviors associated with giving feedback and receiving it from a peer.  相似文献   

19.
Abstract

Three hundred male subjects, assigned in systematic rotation to five experimental groups (N = 60 in each) which differed in amount of distribution of practice, were tested on a discrete-trial motor learning task, the peg turn. All subjects were given 120 practice trials (60 trials a day), on two days separated by a 48-hour rest. Even though the peg turn task is inherently distributed, reminiscence did occur when the massing was made as large as practically possible. The amount of reminiscence depended upon the stage of practice. Warm-up decrement occurred in the peg turn under both massed and distributed practice conditions; the longer the rest, the greater the amount. Performance of the task under nonrhythmical conditions reduced the development of “set” during practice and thus decreased the amount of warm-up decrement after rest. Increased amounts of massing did have a deleterious effect on performance, but did not reduce the amount learned.  相似文献   

20.

Reduced feedback during practice has been shown to be detrimental to movement accuracy in children but not in young adults. We hypothesized that the reduced accuracy is attributable to reduced movement parameter learning, but not pattern learning, in children. A rapid arm movement task that required the acquisition of a motor pattern scaled to specific spatial and temporal parameters was used to investigate the effects of feedback (FB) frequency (100% vs. 62% faded) on motor learning differences between 19 school-age children and 19 young adults. Adults and children practiced the task for 200 trials under the 100% or faded FB condition on Day 1 and returned on Day 2 for a no-FB retention test. On the retention test, children who practiced with reduced feedback performed with greater temporal parameter errors, but not pattern error, than children who received frequent feedback. Motor skill learning in children is influenced by feedback frequency during practice that affects parameter learning but not pattern learning.  相似文献   

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