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1.
This study examined three processes crucial to reading comprehension (semantic access, integration, and inhibition) to identify causes of comprehension impairment. Poor comprehenders were compared to chronological-age controls and vocabulary-age (VA) controls. When listening to homonym primes (“bank”) versus unrelated primes, controls were faster to name pictures related to dominant (money) and subordinate (river) meanings at 250 ms interstimulus interval (ISI) but only showed dominant priming at 1,000 ms ISI, whereas poor comprehenders only showed dominant priming. When listening to subordinately biased sentences ending in homonyms (“John fished from the bank”) versus control sentences, all groups showed priming when naming subordinate (appropriate) pictures at 250 ms ISI: VA controls and poor comprehenders also showed priming when naming dominant (inappropriate) pictures. At 1,000 ms ISI, controls showed appropriate priming, whereas poor comprehenders only showed inappropriate priming. These findings suggest that poor comprehenders have difficulties accessing subordinate word meanings, which can manifest as a failure to inhibit irrelevant information. 相似文献
2.
Naive “observer” rats that interact with conspecific “demonstrators” fed a distinctive food increase intake of the food their demonstrators have eaten. Here we found that observer rats that had interacted simultaneously with 2 demonstrator rats, 1 fed a distinctively flavored, protein-poor food, the other a distinctively flavored, protein-rich food, did not prefer the former. Similarly, observer rats ate equal amounts of two distinctively flavored foods after interacting simultaneously with 2 demonstrator rats, 1 that had consumed all food available to it, the other fed from a surplus of the second food. Last, observer rats that had interacted with both a “trustworthy” demonstrator (1 an observer had learned ate only nutritious foods) and an “untrustworthy” demonstrator (1 an observer had learned ate noxious substances) did not prefer unfamiliar foods eaten by trustworthy demonstrators to those eaten by untrustworthy demonstrators. These findings suggest limits on social information observers use in selecting foods. 相似文献
3.
Rats were exposed to a procedure in which auditory stimuli signaled which of two levers was associated with a variable-interval 60-sec schedule of food presentation. Presses on the lever that was not associated with the variable-interval schedule (“errors”) postponed availability of reinforcement on the other lever by either a fixed number of responses or a fixed amount of time. Increasing the number of responses by which “errors” postponed food availability enhanced the level of stimulus control, and. alter a relatively high degree of control had been achieved, reduction of the requirement had no effect. Control experiments ruled out extended exposure to the discrimination procedure as a factor in the increase in stimulus control and suggested that the time of introduction of a changeover contingent is an important determinant of its effect. 相似文献
4.
In four experiments utilizing an appetitive conditioning preparation, reacquisition of conditioned responding was found to occur both rapidly and slowly following extinction. In Experiment 1, acquisition of responding to a tone that had been conditioned and extinguished occurred more rapidly than acquisition in either a group that received equivalent exposure to the food unconditioned stimulus or a “rest” control group that received only exposure to the apparatus in the first two phases. However, reacquisition was impaired relative to acquisition in a “learning-experienced” group that had previously received conditioning and extinction with a different stimulus. Experiments 2 and 3 produced similar results, but also found that high responding during reacquisition was confined to trials that followed reinforced, rather than nonreinforced, trials. Experiment 4, in which very few initial conditioning trials were used, produced reacquisition that was slow compared with both learning-experienced and rest controls. The results are consistent with a role for sequential learning: Reacquisition is rapid when animals have learned that reinforced trials signal other reinforced trials. 相似文献
5.
Wayne A. Hershberger 《Learning & behavior》1986,14(4):443-451
Forty food-deprived cockerel chicks were tested individually in a straight runway containing a familiar food cup that moved when the chicks moved. The food cup always moved in the same direction as the chick: For 20 experimental chicks it moved twice as far as the chick; for 20 control chicks it moved half as far. In Lewis Carroll’s (1898/1926) picturesque terminology, the experimental chicks were tested in Alice’s “room through the looking-glass,” in which, in order to approach the food cup, they had to “walk the other way.” Although the control chicks performed well, the experimental chicks evinced the runway behavior that characterizes positive feedback: They persistently chased the food cup away. This means that the spatial polarity of visual feedback is critical and implies that an ordinary approach response is but an automatic (closed-loop) realization of an intended visual perception. 相似文献
6.
It has been reported that animals will “work” in preference to “freeloading.” However, the variables responsible for this phenomenon are not well understood. Two pigeons were trained to keypeck for food on a fixed-ratio 300 schedule. Next, the food hopper was propped up to permit continuous access to food, and the presence or absence of the hopper light was manipulated. When the hopper light was presented contingent upon the fixed-ratio schedule, keypecking occurred; when it was not presented, keypecking ceased. Thus, responding in the presence of free food was shown to be a function of the conditioned reinforcing properties of the hopper light. 相似文献
7.
Questionnaire responses from 338 secondary school teachers were analysed to relate teachers' professional characteristics (comprising teaching experience, professional development, and academic and professional qualifications) to teacher professionalism, defined in terms of the two dimensions, teaching competence and commitment to teaching. The Professional Development and Teacher Professionalism Instrument (PDTPI) was devised to measure professional development and teacher professionalism. Inferential statistical techniques employed in the study showed that the variable, teaching experience, was not related to teacher professionalism. Professional development, on the other hand, was found to be an important variable, with the mean teacher professionalism scores between the “high” and “low” professional development groups being significantly different. The study also found that academic qualification was not related to teacher professionalism. However, teachers who had higher professional qualifications were found to possess a higher degree of teacher professionalism. 相似文献
8.
The study examined children and adolescents’ ability to improve root spelling in Hebrew words by paying attention to phonological, semantic and orthographic properties of priming roots. One hundred and fifty 8, 9, 10, 11 and 15-year olds were administered two spelling tests in Hebrew. The same 40 target words were used in both tests, each word containing a root with at least one homophonous letter. Target words were matched one-to-one with 40 priming words containing the same root. The pool of prime-target word pairs was classified into two major groups:Words containing genuine root primes, and words containing false root primes. In the first test, participants had to spell the 40 target words. In the second test they had to spell the same words, each primed by its written genuine or false match. Results showed that unprimed spelling improved with age. Priming – both genuine and false – improved spelling performance significantly, especially in younger grades, but genuine priming was more effective. Spellers were able to overcome phonological opacity in root primes and to take root semantics into account. This finding testifies to the robustness of the root as a unified morphological entity in Hebrew and to children’s ability to make use of their knowledge of lexical and morphological organization in learning to spell.We thank Dominiek Sandra, Harald Baayen and an anonymous reviewer for their important and constructive comments on an earlier version of this paper. 相似文献
9.
Korean has visually salient syllable units that are often mapped onto either prefixes or suffixes in derived words. In addition, prefixed and suffixed words may be processed differently given a left-to-right parsing procedure and the need to resolve morphemic ambiguity in prefixes in Korean. To test this hypothesis, four experiments using the masked priming lexical decision paradigm were conducted. Results showed that suffixed primes facilitated responses to their stem targets regardless of the lexicality or interpretability of the primes. In contrast, prefixed primes had a significant effect only when they were real words, and not when they were either interpretable or noninterpretable prefixed pseudowords. These results suggest that there may be two different processing mechanisms for derived words in Korean. One is prelexical morphological decomposition for suffixed words, and the other is the supralexical analysis for prefixed words where decomposition occurs only after the whole word has been accessed. 相似文献
10.
The adult lexicon links concepts and labels with related meanings (e.g., dog–cat). How do children's encounters with concepts versus labels contribute to semantic development? Three studies investigated semantic priming in 40 monolinguals and 32 bilinguals, who have similar experience with concepts but different experience with labels (i.e., monolinguals hear “dog,” bilinguals hear “dog” and “chien”). Similarities in performance across monolinguals and bilinguals at age 24 months, as well as across bilinguals’ two languages at age 30 months, support the position that encounters with concepts contribute more to early semantic development than encounters with labels. Findings also suggest that the effects of semantic priming are challenging to observe at 24 months but are strong in bilinguals by age 30 months. 相似文献
11.
Lin Zhou Gang Peng Hong-Ying Zheng I-Fan Su William S-Y. Wang 《Reading and writing》2013,26(6):967-989
Most sinograms (i.e., Chinese characters) are phonograms (phonetic compounds). A phonogram is composed of a semantic radical and a phonetic radical, with the former usually implying the meaning of the phonogram, and the latter providing cues to its pronunciation. This study focused on the sub-lexical processing of semantic radicals which are themselves free standing sinograms. Two primed naming experiments were carried out to examine whether the meanings and pronunciations of the semantic radicals embedded in phonograms were activated or not during sinogram recognition. In Experiment 1, semantically opaque phonograms were used as primes. We observed facilitatory priming effects for targets which were semantically related to the semantic radicals embedded in primes, but not to the primes themselves. These effects were present for low-frequency primes, but not for high-frequency primes. Experiment 2 used only low-frequency phonograms as primes. We observed facilitatory priming effects for targets which were homophones of the semantic radicals embedded in primes, but not of the primes themselves. These results suggest that sub-lexical semantic and phonological information of semantic radicals are activated, and that the activation processes are modulated by the lexical frequency of the host phonograms. Our study shows that sub-lexical processing of semantic radicals is similar to that of phonetic radicals, indicating no fundamental difference between sub-lexical processing of semantic and phonetic radicals, supporting the view that a radical has a unique representation irrespective of its function in the orthographic system of Taft’s model. 相似文献
12.
Peter C. Holland 《Learning & behavior》2014,42(4):365-382
Initially neutral conditioned stimuli paired with food often acquire motivating properties, including serving as secondary reinforcers, enhancing instrumental responding in Pavlovian-instrumental transfer procedures, and potentiating food consumption under conditions of food satiation. Interestingly, cues associated with the cancellation of food and food cues may also potentiate food consumption (e.g., Galarce and Holland, 2009), despite their apparent negative correlations with food delivery. In three experiments with rats, we investigated conditions under which potentiation of feeding by such “interruption stimuIi” (ISs) develops, and some aspects of the content of that learning. Although in all three experiments ISs enhanced food consumption beyond control levels, they were found to act as conditioned inhibitors for anticipatory food cup entry (Experiment 1), to serve as conditioned punishers of instrumental responding (Experiment 2), and to suppress instrumental lever press responding in a Pavlovian instrumental transfer procedure (Experiment 3). Furthermore, when given concurrent choice between different foods, an IS enhanced consumption of the food whose interruption it had previously signaled, but when given a choice between performing two instrumental responses, the IS shifted rats’ choice away from the response that had previously yielded the food whose interruption had been signaled by IS (Experiment 3). Thus, the effects of an IS on appetitive responses were opposite to its effects on consummatory responding. Implications for our understanding of learned incentive motivation and the control of overeating are discussed. 相似文献
13.
Hans-Ulrich Grunder 《Paedagogica Historica: International Journal of the History of Education》2014,50(5):571-579
In his daily journal on the founding of the public experimental school, a “community school” at the Berliner Tor in Hamburg between spring 1919 and September 1921, Lottig describes the everyday issues confronting the principal of the “new school” at that time. These concern classroom instruction, teachers, parents, external pressures on the Berliner Tor-School, the relationship with the school administration, political issues prevalent in Hamburg at that time, ideological and philosophical debates as well as personal and family relationship problems, all of which Lottig describes in his journal. Lottig also noted the reasoning underpinning the development of the school experiments: the “old” schools in Hamburg had been closed, and the state had in their place established experimental schools. The journal clearly records the difficulties, issues and successes of a principal of one of the newly established community schools (Lebensgemeinschaftsschulen), which had been established as experimental schools. A perusal of the diary indicates that Jakob Robert Schmid’s sole and up to now only one known analysis of the journal comes off as biased and misleading. Schmid, professor of education at the University of Berne, had, at the beginning of the 1930s, only perused and analysed those portions of Lottig’s journal in which Lottig describes the rather turbulent if inspiring – and yet chaotic – operation of the community school in its first two years. While Schmid analysed these portions, he did not consider Lottig’s other, more favourable and constructive comments. Schmid also did not explain his one-sided selection of journal passages. Schmid brands Lottig and his team of teachers as educational novices and classifies the Berliner Tor-School as an “anti-authoritarian” institution, an experimental school like any other school experiment which overshoots the mark, not being educationally and institutionally meaningful. A more objective and principled approach in examining Lottig’s journal would have revealed that Lottig and his teachers were well aware of the main issue confronting the school, an issue that Schmid would also have found relevant: the relation of freedom and compulsion, within a setting that Lottig wanted to revitalise, to productively equilibrate without employing the customary disciplinary instruments. Lottig furthermore again and again points emphatically to the “growing pains” of all alternative schools (even when regulated by the state as an experimental school), whose goal it had been, to establish, even under difficult circumstances, a “new school-type” not utilising the traditional instruments of discipline, instruction and school management. This proves that Lottig was neither an educational ignoramus nor unaware of the basic issue of classroom instruction: how one can instruct with or without compulsion. Lottig’s goal had always been – and this Schmid also disregarded – to replace traditional, imposed, mandated or even self-imposed rules and regulations by new, commonly worked out rules. Lottig’s journal is a good example of the steadfast, unrelenting and energy-sapping aspiration of a school principal to balance the relation of school management versus a school’s self-development under the given circumstances. In addition, Schmid’s misinterpretation is a good example of how an observer, who hardly knew the Berliner Tor-School, would misuse this historical source by means of a biased interpretation to further his own views on scholastic education, views that Lottig himself would have preferred to provocatively examine – Schmid’s “authoritative pedagogy”, which goes beyond all authoritarian and non-authoritarian educational policies. What, then, would Lottig have recorded in his journal about a meeting with Schmid? 相似文献
14.
从我国疫情发生的频率和此次新冠肺炎疫情造成的严重后果来看,后疫情时代"食育"已不是个人"私事",而成为牵涉到公共利益与安全的"公事"。长期以来,国人存在不良的饮食习惯和饮食文化,缺少对大自然生态平衡的维护。基于教育制度学独特视角,有必要去思考中国现有的"食育"制度是否真正贯彻落实到国民的教育过程中,在这个提倡"五育融合"的教育新时代,更有必要将"食育"与德智体美劳教育贯通起来,培养有高度生命意识和尊重自然规律的时代新人。 相似文献
15.
We conducted two studies of beliefs about laboratory and everyday thermal phenomena. The first study identified concepts of heat energy and temperature held by adolescents, adults, and scientists. We found a classic separation of “school” and “everyday” knowledge in each population. We conducted clinical interviews with 37 middle school students, 9 adults, and 8 chemists and physicists to obtain their predictions and explanations of real-world phenomena. Many students believed that metals “conduct,” “absorb,” “trap,” or “hold” cold better than other materials and that aluminum foil would be better than wool or cotton as a wrapping material to keep cold objects cold. Respondents in each group held many intuitive ideas that were well established. Although scientists made more accurate predictions than students and gave theoretical definitions of terms, they too had difficulty explaining everyday phenomena. The second study investigated the impact of a middle school science curriculum designed to help students understand everyday thermal events. We found marked improvements in posttest scores and clinical interview responses as a result of instruction that built on students' intuitions. 相似文献
16.
Jyh‐Chong Liang 《International Journal of Science Education》2013,35(17):2273-2289
In recent years, there has been an increasing interest among educational researchers in exploring the relationships between learners’ epistemological beliefs and their conceptions of learning. This study was conducted to investigate these relationships particularly in the domain of science. The participants in this study included 407 Taiwanese college science‐major students. All of them responded to two major questionnaires, one assessing their scientific epistemological beliefs (SEBs) and the other one probing their conceptions of learning science (COLS). The SEB questionnaire included four factors: “certainty,” “source,” “development,” and “justification” of science knowledge. The COLS survey consisted of six factors in a hierarchical order, that is, learning science as “memorizing,” “preparing for tests,” “calculating and practicing,” “increasing one’s knowledge,” “application,” and “understanding and seeing in a new way.” The students’ confidence and interest toward learning science were also assessed by additional questionnaire items. Stepwise regression analyses, in general, showed coherence between students’ SEBs and their COLS, indicating that the sophistication of SEBs was consistent with less agreement with lower‐level COLS (such as “memorizing” and “preparing for tests”) as well as more agreement with higher‐level COLS (such as “understanding and seeing in a new way”). However, the SEB’s “justification” factor was positively related to almost all of COLS factors from the lower‐level to higher‐level. This study finally found that among all of the SEB and COLS factors, the “preparing for tests” factor in COLS was the solely significant variable for predicting students’ interest in science and confidence toward learning science. 相似文献
17.
Pigeons categorized binomial samples. One of two “coins” was tossed on each trial, and birds learned to infer from observing the outcomes which of the two equally likely coins had been tossed. Outcomes (“heads” or “tails”) appeared as successively presented red or green center keys. Coin R was biased in favor of red, and coin G was similarly biased in favor of green. A categorization consisted of a choice of a left or right side key and was reinforced with food if it was to the key (left for coin R and right for coin G) corresponding to the coin that produced that trial’s sample. Coin bias and minimum sample size required for reinforcement were experimentally manipulated. When sample size was greatest (n=8), categorizing a sample as having been produced by coin R tended to undermatch the probability that the sample was produced by coin R. When sample size was smallest (n=1), categorizing a sample overmatched, provided that the context did not include other trials with large samples. This context effect reconciles an otherwise inconsistent literature on intuitive statistical inference in pigeons but suggests a new and difficult goal for research-the general clarification of the effects of sampling context on inference. 相似文献
18.
“超验主义”是“应和”理论的理论背景,也是后来整个象征主义运动和思潮的安身立命之处。作为理论的“应和”与作为主义的“象征”有联系又有区别。其区别在于,前者由波德莱尔提出,而后者是波德莱尔去世后由魏尔伦、兰波和马拉美等所表征出来的;前者是一种哲学美学理论,而后者是一种下降到可操作(实践)层面的“主义”。其联系在于,前者为后者奠定了宇宙观,而后者则为前者“趟”开了向欧洲乃至全球扩展的具体路径。如果说魏尔伦、兰波对作为主义的“象征”的贡献在于对诗歌“音乐至上”和音色相通的呼唤,马拉美的贡献就在于类推、暗示方法的树立。事实上,作为主义的“象征”是将“应和”理论推向全球的一个中介。 相似文献
19.
徐国明 《唐山师范学院学报》2014,(6):27-30
（食）字由“（亼）”和“ （皀）”两部分构成。当我们结合“（食）”→“（即）”→“（饗）”→“（既）”这一系相连贯的古人用食动作,或者“”→“（飤）”→“”这一过程分析时,就会明确食字所从的“（亼）”象盖形,本义为盖子。食字所从的“皀”字甲骨文作：,其象：食器中堆满饭（小米饭）的形状（上部的数点表示饭散发的热气或香气）。食字由这两部分构成,但又不是如《说文》及《注》所认为的：食是会意字,意思由“亼”与“皀”两字所会。实际上（食）为象形字,象：食器中堆满饭并盖上盖子之形;它与（皀）字的意思相同都指：食器中堆满饭,二者仅有的不同在于（食）有盖子（皀）没有盖子。这是食字的本义,由这个意思可引出仅指食器中的饭食之食物,食物是供人吃的,由此又可指食用之食,如甲文（食麦）。在吃食的过程中食器中堆积如小山般的饭食会逐渐缺少,这就有了缺损义,由此又可指日月食,如（月有食）。吃食在一个时间段进行,由此又可指时间,如（大食）（小食）。 相似文献
20.
This study investigated the development of automatic word recognition processes, in particular the development of the morphological
level of processing. We examined masked priming of Hebrew irregular forms at two levels of reading experience. Both third-
and seventh-grade children showed morphological priming for defective roots when primes and targets conformed to the canonical
morphological structure, containing all three letters of the roots, and also when the surface form of the primes and targets
contained only two of the root letters. However, priming was not observed when primes and targets did not overlap in the surface
form of the roots, i.e. the full three-letter root as prime and only two root letters in the target. These results suggest
that both tri- and bi-consonantal representations of defective roots exist in the mental lexicon of young readers. The formation
of interconnections between these allomorphic representations, however, requires more extensive reading experience. 相似文献