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1.
A nonverbal task of false belief understanding was given to 4- and 5-year-old children (N = 28) and to two species of great ape: chimpanzees and orangutans (N = 7). The task was embedded in a series of finding games in which an adult (the hider) hid a reward in one of two identical containers, and another adult (the communicator) observed the hiding process and attempted to help the participant by placing a marker on the container that she believed to hold the reward. An initial series of control trials ensured that participants were able to use the marker to locate the reward, follow the reward in both visible and invisible displacements, and ignore the marker when they knew it to be incorrect. In the crucial false belief trials, the communicator watched the hiding process and then left the area, at which time the hider switched the locations of the containers. When the communicator returned, she marked the container at the location where she had seen the reward hidden, which was incorrect. The hider then gave the subject the opportunity to find the sticker. Successful performance required participants to reason as follows: the communicator placed the marker where she saw the reward hidden; the container that was at that location is now at the other location; so the reward is at the other location. Children were also given a verbal false belief task in the context of this same hiding game. The two main results of the study were: (1) children's performance on the verbal and nonverbal false belief tasks were highly correlated (and both fit very closely with age norms from previous studies), and (2) no ape succeeded in the nonverbal false belief task even though they succeeded in all of the control trials indicating mastery of the general task demands. 相似文献
2.
The association between executive function (EF) and theory of mind (ToM) has been hotly debated for 20 years. Competing accounts focus on: task demands, conceptual overlap, or functional ties. Findings from this meta‐analytic review of 102 studies (representing 9,994 participants aged 3–6 years) indicate that the moderate association between EF and one key aspect of ToM, false belief understanding (FBU) is: (a) similar for children from different cultures, (b) largely consistent across distinct EF tasks, but varies across different types of false belief task, and (c) is asymmetric in that early individual differences in EF predict later variation in FBU but not vice versa. These findings support a hybrid emergence‐expression account and highlight new directions for research. 相似文献
3.
The proposed left hemisphere dysfunction in dyslexia was investigated in a review of four studies using regional cerebral blood flow (rCBF; N=152) and combined auditory evoked responses (AERs) with positron emission tomography (PET) (N=20). In contrast to the positive relation that was found between temporal rCBF and orthographic task accuracy, an inverse correlation was found phonemic in normals between task accuracy and left temporal rCBF activation, near Heschl's gyrus. Dyslexics, by contrast, showed a positive correlation between Heschl's gyrus activation (by PET and rCBF) and phonemic processing accuracy. The AER's at C3 for an early positive component (P1) showed that these relationships were true both on hit trials and correct rejection trials, indicating that the perceptual rather than motoric or selective attention aspects of the task were being measured. Methodological issues were emphasized, including the difficulty of interpreting mean differences in brain activity at a given site without considering the separate multivariate structures that might exist in the two populations. 相似文献
4.
Lydia Schaap Peter Verkoeijen Henk Schmidt 《Assessment & Evaluation in Higher Education》2014,39(5):625-640
This study investigated the effects of two different true–false questions on memory awareness and long-term retention of knowledge. Participants took four subsequent knowledge tests on curriculum learning material that they studied at different retention intervals prior to the start of this study (i.e. prior to the first test). At the first and fourth (pre- and post-) tests, participants indicated which form of memory awareness (i.e. remember, know, familiar and/or guess) accompanied their answer. On the two intermediate tests, testing format was manipulated: true/false or true/false justification, that is a true/false statement with the additional instruction to explain why the statement is true or false. The results resembled earlier findings in that different forms of memory awareness could be distinguished. The study did not indicate (additional) knowledge schematisation as a result of testing or testing format. However, independent of test format, the proportion of correct answers on the post-test was higher than on the pre-test. This could indicate that the beneficial effects of testing can occur even when the learning episode was at a long retention interval prior to the first test. 相似文献
5.
Executive functioning and preschoolers' understanding of false beliefs, false photographs, and false signs 总被引：1，自引：1，他引：0
Two studies were conducted to investigate the specificity of the relationship between preschoolers' emerging executive functioning skills and false belief understanding. Study 1 ( N =44) showed that 3- to 5-year-olds' performance on an executive functioning task that required selective suppression of actions predicted performance on false belief tasks, but not on false photograph tasks. Study 2 ( N =54) replicated the finding from Study 1 and showed that performance on the executive functioning task also predicted 3- to 5-year-olds' performance on false sign tasks. These findings show that executive functioning is required to reason only about representations that are intended to reflect a true state of affairs. Results are discussed with respect to theories of preschoolers' theory-of-mind development. 相似文献
6.
Kevin Charles De Berg 《科学教学研究杂志》1995,32(8):871-884
Problem-solving strategies in the physical sciences have been characterized by a dependence on algorithmic techniques often devoid of any reasoning skills. The purpose of this study was to examine student responses to a task relating to Boyle's Law for gases, which did not demand the use of a mathematical equation for its solution. Students (17- to 18-year-olds) in lower sixth form from two colleges in the Leeds district of Yorkshire in England were asked to respond to a task relating to pressure and volume measurements of air within a sealed syringe in different states of compression. Both qualitative and quantitative tasks for the sealed syringe system were examined. It was found that 34% to 38% of students did not understand the concepts of volume and mass, respectively, of a gas under such circumstances. Performance on an inverse ratio (2:1) task was shown to depend on gender and those students who performed well on the 2:1 inverse ratio task did not necessarily perform well on a different inverse ratio task when an arithmetic averaging principle was present. Tasks which draw upon qualitative knowledge as well as quantitative knowledge have the potential to reduce dependence on algorithms, particularly equation substitution and solution. The implications for instructional design are discussed. 相似文献
7.
Background This study investigates children’s ability to generate inferences from narratives containing counterfactual information.
Methods 39 typically developing readers (mean age 10; 05) completed an on-line task in which they were asked to read short passages,
followed by sentences which they had to judge as true or false. The sentences pertained to either a causal inference or a
static inference that could have been made during the reading of the passage. The passages and corresponding sentences were
either true in terms of real world knowledge, or were presented as fairy tales. Results Results indicated that overall children responded faster and more accurately to sentences related to causal inferences than
to static inferences. Responses to both types of inferences were slower in the ‘fairy story’ condition. Conclusions Children’s pattern of inference generation appears to be the same irrespective of the factual basis of the passage. However,
responses to sentences based on inferences in the preceding passage are slower in fairy stories. 相似文献
8.
微分中值定理逆命题的讨论 总被引：1，自引：0，他引：1
陈庆 《南阳师范学院学报》2004,3(12):21-24
对于常见的三个微分中值定理(罗尔中值定理，拉格朗日中值定理，柯西中值定理)的逆命题何时成立的问题进行了讨论。对于f(x)仅有一个零点的情况得到了使罗尔中值定理逆命题成立的充要务件；对于一般情况，也得到了一个有价值的充要条件，利用辅助函数推广了关于罗尔中值定理逆命题的有关结果，得到了拉格朗日中值定理与柯西中值定理逆命题成立的条件。 相似文献
9.
A study was undertaken to develop for the first time a multiple‐choice version of one of Palmore's true‐false tests on aging knowledge. We were interested in comparing the two formats of the second Facts on Aging Quiz (FAQ2; Palmore, 1981) to determine whether educational measurement improved with a change in format. The multiple‐choice version was administered to 195 introductory sociology students, and the standard true‐false version was given to a second group of 180 introductory sociology students. Compared with the true‐false version, the multiple‐choice version (a) showed a substantial decrease in guessing and thus increased the likelihood that a score was an accurate reflection o respondent's knowledge, (b) had greater internal consistency and reliability, (c) showed a trend toward higher discriminatory power, and (d) identified more specifically some misconceptions about aging. 相似文献
10.
On belief-desire reasoning tasks, children first pass tasks involving true belief before those involving false belief, and tasks involving positive desire before those involving negative desire. The current study examined belief-desire reasoning in participants old enough to pass all such tasks. Eighty-three 6- to 11-year-olds and 20 adult participants completed simple, computer-based tests of belief-desire reasoning, which recorded response times as well as error rates. Both measures suggested that, like young children, older children and adults find it more difficult to reason about false belief and negative desires than true beliefs and positive desires. It is argued that this developmental continuity is most consistent with either executive competence or executive performance accounts of the development of belief-desire reasoning. 相似文献
11.
《教育实用测度》2013,26(2):123-136
College students use information about upcoming tests, including the item formats to be used, to guide their study strategies and allocation of effort, but little is known about how students perceive item formats. In this study, college students rated the dissimilarity of pairs of common item formats (true/false, multiple choice, essay, fill-in-the-blank, matching, short answer, analogy, and arrangement). A multidimensional scaling model with individual differences (INDSCAL) was fit to the data of 11 1 students and suggested that they were using two dimensions to distinguish among these formats. One dimension separated supply from selection items, and the formats' positions on the dimension were related to ratings of difficulty, review time allocated, objectivity, and recognition (as opposed to recall) required. The second dimension ordered item formats from those with few options from which to choose (e.g., true/false) or brief responses (e.g., fill-in-the-blank), to those with many options from which to choose (e.g., matching) or long responses (e.g., essay). These student perceptions are likely to mediate the impact of classroom evaluation on student study strategies and allocation of effort. 相似文献
12.
Tobias Kärner Nina Minkley Andreas Rausch Thomas Schley Detlef Sembill 《Vocations and Learning》2018,11(3):365-398
By adapting the job demands-resources model of Demerouti et al. Journal of Applied Psychology, 86(3), 499–512, (2001) to vocational problem-solving situations, we aimed to investigate how, and to what extent, problem-solving demands and personal resources affect stress responses and task interest. Therefore, we used a problem-solving task from the business administration domain in a computer-based office simulation. We assigned 58 participants into two groups. The treatment group worked on the problem scenario, whereas the control group was instructed to inspect the computer-based scenario and to check the software’s usability without solving the problem. Problem-solving demands, perceived stress, task interest, cardiovascular parameters, and cortisol concentration were assessed before, during and after the task at several time points. The vocational problem-solving task was associated with perceived time pressure, uncertainty, mental effort, task difficulty, and perceived stress. In addition, we found higher heart rate and cortisol concentration and lower heart rate variability values in the treatment group (compared to the control group) at the end of the task. Furthermore, we found that content knowledge buffers the impact of problem-solving demands on stress responses and it maintains task interest under high mental effort. Overall, we found evidence that vocational problem-solving activities bear stress-evoking potential and personal resources may provide buffering and maintaining functions. 相似文献
13.
虚概念的“真假”问题 总被引：2，自引：0，他引：2
许占君 《内蒙古大学学报(人文社会科学版)》2001,33(5):10-13
虚概念就是在客观世界中不存在其所指对象的概念，概念（包括实概念和虚概念）是无所谓真假的，真假特性是判断（或命题）所独有的，概念在现实世界中是否存在对应物并不构成真假问题，只构成实虚问题，主或虚概念有真假的主张或违反逻辑或不符合事实。 相似文献
14.
William V. Fabricius Christopher R. Gonzales Annelise Pesch Amy A. Weimer John Pugliese Kathleen Carroll Rebecca R. Bolnick Anne S. Kupfer Nancy Eisenberg Tracy L. Spinrad 《Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development》2021,86(3):7-154
An important part of children's social and cognitive development is their understanding that people are psychological beings with internal, mental states including desire, intention, perception, and belief. A full understanding of people as psychological beings requires a representational theory of mind (ToM), which is an understanding that mental states can faithfully represent reality, or misrepresent reality. For the last 35 years, researchers have relied on false-belief tasks as the gold standard to test children's understanding that beliefs can misrepresent reality. In false-belief tasks, children are asked to reason about the behavior of agents who have false beliefs about situations. Although a large body of evidence indicates that most children pass false-belief tasks by the end of the preschool years, the evidence we present in this monograph suggests that most children do not understand false beliefs or, surprisingly, even true beliefs until middle childhood. We argue that young children pass false-belief tasks without understanding false beliefs by using perceptual access reasoning (PAR). With PAR, children understand that seeing leads to knowing in the moment, but not that knowing also arises from thinking or persists as memory and belief after the situation changes. By the same token, PAR leads children to fail true-belief tasks. PAR theory can account for performance on other traditional tests of representational ToM and related tasks, and can account for the factors that have been found to correlate with or affect both true- and false-belief performance. The theory provides a new laboratory measure which we label the belief understanding scale (BUS). This scale can distinguish between a child who is operating with PAR versus a child who is understanding beliefs. This scale provides a method needed to allow the study of the development of representational ToM. In this monograph, we report the outcome of the tests that we have conducted of predictions generated by PAR theory. The findings demonstrated signature PAR limitations in reasoning about the mind during the ages when children are hypothesized to be using PAR. In Chapter II, secondary analyses of the published true-belief literature revealed that children failed several types of true-belief tasks. Chapters III through IX describe new empirical data collected across multiple studies between 2003 and 2014 from 580 children aged 4–7 years, as well as from a small sample of 14 adults. Participants were recruited from the Phoenix, Arizona metropolitan area. All participants were native English-speakers. Children were recruited from university-sponsored and community preschools and daycare centers, and from hospital maternity wards. Adults were university students who participated to partially fulfill course requirements for research participation. Sociometric data were collected only in Chapter IX, and are fully reported there. In Chapter III, minor alterations in task procedures produced wide variations in children's performance in 3-option false-belief tasks. In Chapter IV, we report findings which show that the developmental lag between children's understanding ignorance and understanding false belief is longer than the lag reported in previous studies. In Chapter V, children did not distinguish between agents who have false beliefs versus agents who have no beliefs. In Chapter VI, findings showed that children found it no easier to reason about true beliefs than to reason about false beliefs. In Chapter VII, when children were asked to justify their correct answers in false-belief tasks, they did not reference agents’ false beliefs. Similarly, in Chapter VIII, when children were asked to explain agents’ actions in false-belief tasks, they did not reference agents’ false beliefs. In Chapter IX, children who were identified as using PAR differed from children who understood beliefs along three dimensions—in levels of social development, inhibitory control, and kindergarten adjustment. Although the findings need replication and additional studies of alternative interpretations, the collection of results reported in this monograph challenges the prevailing view that representational ToM is in place by the end of the preschool years. Furthermore, the pattern of findings is consistent with the proposal that PAR is the developmental precursor of representational ToM. The current findings also raise questions about claims that infants and toddlers demonstrate ToM-related abilities, and that representational ToM is innate. 相似文献
15.
本研究采用了实验的方法,以言语、非言语性任务,意外转移与表征变化任务为变量,考察了不同语言能力的88名3-4岁幼儿的错误信念理解能力。研究结果发现,降低错误信念任务对语言能力的要求并不能改变幼儿在错误信念理解上的年龄特征;在3岁和4岁两个年龄组中,语言能力超常的幼儿在各项实验任务上的表现均好于语言能力一般的幼儿。 相似文献
16.
Exploring the fluctuation of motivation and use of self-regulatory processes during learning with hypermedia 总被引：1，自引：0，他引：1
We collected think-aloud, pre-test, post-test, and motivation data from 43 undergraduates to examine the impact of conceptual
scaffolds on the fluctuation of certain motivation constructs and use of self-regulatory processes during learning with hypermedia.
Participants were randomly assigned to either the No Scaffolding (NS) or Conceptual Scaffolding (CS) condition. During the
experimental session, each participant individually completed a pre-test on the circulatory system, a pre-task motivation
questionnaire, one 30-min hypermedia learning task during which they learned about the circulatory system, a motivation questionnaire
at three regular intervals during this learning task, a post-test on the circulatory system, and a post-task motivation questionnaire.
Results indicated that while participants in both conditions gained declarative knowledge, participants who received conceptual
scaffolds during learning demonstrated deeper understanding of the circulatory system on the post-test. In terms of self-regulatory
processes, the results indicated that participants in the CS condition used significantly more planning processes during learning
than participants in the NS condition. Additionally, participants in both conditions significantly decreased their use of
strategies as they progressed through the learning task. Regarding motivation while learning with hypermedia, results indicated
that participants in both conditions reported significantly increased levels of interest as they progressed through the learning
task. Furthermore, participants in the CS condition reported the task as being easier and putting forth less effort than participants
in the NS condition.
相似文献
| Daniel C. MoosEmail: |
17.
《Early education and development》2013,24(2):124-146
This study investigated the relationship between narrative skills and theory of mind for low-income children. Two groups of low-income preschoolers, one African American (n = 33) and one European American (n = 36), created a narrative and participated in a false belief task. The European Americans outperformed African Americans on the false belief task, but there were no differences in the narrative skills across the groups. After controlling for children's age, false belief performance had no effect on European Americans' narrative abilities. However, African Americans who passed the false belief task told stories that were more grammatically coherent and social cognitively sophisticated than those African American children who did not pass the task. 相似文献
18.
女声歌唱并不完全是运用假声,形成假声“误区”的原因是多方面的,走出假声“误区”,应从调整呼吸做起,逐步恢复真声机能,产生正确的混声音柱,使自己的声音更完美。 相似文献
19.
Most studies on the Stroop effect (unintentional automatic word processing) have been restricted to English speakers using vocal responses. Little is known about this effect with deaf signers. The study compared Stroop task responses among four different samples: deaf participants from a Japanese-language environment and from an English-language environment; and hearing individuals from Japan and from Australia. Color words were prepared in both English and Japanese and were presented in three conditions: congruent (e.g., the word red printed in red), incongruent (e.g., red printed in blue), and neutral. The magnitude of the effect was greater with the deaf participants than with the hearing participants. The deaf individuals experienced more interference in English than in Japanese. 相似文献
20.
We used a false-biofeedback methodology to manipulate physiological arousal in order to induce affective states that would influence learners’ metacognitive judgments and learning performance. False-biofeedback is a method used to induce physiological arousal (and resultant affective states) by presenting learners with audio stimuli of false heart beats. Learners were presented with accelerated, baseline, or no heart beat (control) while they completed a challenging learning task. We tested four hypotheses about the effect of false-biofeedback. The alarm vs. alert hypothesis predicted that false biofeedback would be appraised as either a signal of distress and would impair learning (alarm), or as a signal of engagement and would facilitate learning (alert). The differential biofeedback hypothesis predicted that the alarm and alert effects would be dependent on the type of biofeedback (accelerated vs. baseline). The question depth hypothesis predicted that these effects would be more pronounced for challenging inference questions. Lastly, the self vs. recording hypothesis predicted that effects would only occur if participants believed that false biofeedback was indicative of their own physiological arousal. In general, learners experienced more positive/activating affective states, made more confident metacognitive judgments, and achieved higher learning when they received accelerated or baseline biofeedback while answering a challenging inference question, irrespective of the perceived source of the biofeedback. Thus, our findings supported the alert and question depth hypotheses, but not the differential biofeedback or self vs. recording hypotheses. Implications of the findings for the integration of affective processes into models of cognitive and metacognitive processes during learning are discussed. 相似文献