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1.
Bruce L. Brown Nancy S. Hemmes David A. Coleman Alison Hassin Eva Goldhammer 《Learning & behavior》1982,10(3):365-376
Control of pigeons’ keypecking by a stimulus-reinforcer contingency was investigated in the context of a four-component multiple schedule. In each of three experiments, pigeons were exposed to a schedule consisting of two two-component sequences. Discriminative stimuli identifying each sequence were present only in Component 1, which was 4, 6, or 8 sec in duration, while reinforcers could be earned only in Component 2 (30 sec in duration). Control by a stimulus-reinforcer contingency was sought during Component 1 by arranging a differential relation between Component 1 cues and schedule of reinforcement in Component 2. In Experiment 1, rate of keypecking during Component 1 varied with the presence and absence of a stimulus-reinforcer contingency. When a contingency was introduced, rate of keypecking increased during the Component 1 cue associated with the availability of reinforcement in Component 2. In Experiment 2, the stimulus-reinforcer contingency was manipulated parametrically by varying the correlation between Component 1 cues and Component 2 schedules of reinforcement. Responding in Component 1 varied as a function of strength of the stimulus-reinforcer contingency. The relatively high rates of Component 1 responding observed in Experiments 1 and 2 pose difficulties for conceptions of stimulus-reinforcer control based on probability of reinforcement. In these two experiments, the stimulus-associated probabilities of reinforcement in Component 1 were invariant at zero. An alternate dimension of stimulus-reinforcer control was explored in Experiment 3, in which Component 1 cues were differentially associated with delay to reinforcement in Component 2, while probability of reinforcement was held constant across components. When the stimulus-reinforcer contingency was in force, rate of responding in Component 1 varied inversely with delay to reinforcement in Component 2. In a quantitative analysis of data from Experiments 2 and 3, relative rate of responding during Component 1 was strongly correlated with two measures of relative delay to reinforcement. 相似文献
2.
When people judge the contingency between a target cue and an outcome, they also take into account the contingency between
the outcome and other cues with which the target cue co-occurred. Several authors have argued that such cue competition effects
are due to higher order reasoning processes. We review the evidence that supports this hypothesis and discuss whether higher
order reasoning might also play a role in other learning phenomena. 相似文献
3.
Transfer of judgments of control to a target stimulus and to novel stimuli through derived relations
Three experiments examined the effect of response?Coutcome contingencies on human ratings of causal efficacy and demonstrated that such ratings transfer to novel situations through derived stimulus relations. Efficacy ratings generally followed the delta probability rule when positive response-outcome contingencies were employed (Experiment 1) and when some outcomes were not contingent on participants?? responses (Experiment 2). Experiment 3 employed a negative response?Coutcome contingency and manipulated performance expectancies in the task. All three groups overestimated their causal efficacy ratings. A learned helplessness effect was observed when the response?Coutcomes were uncontrollable and in the high-expectancy group when participants?? performance in the task was worse than they had expected. In all experiments, ratings transferred to a stimulus presented during the task and often generalized to novel stimuli through derived relations. These results corroborate the view that outcome probability is a determinant of causal efficacy ratings and that schedules can be employed as UCS in procedures that share characteristics of evaluative conditioning procedures. 相似文献
4.
Siegel, Allan, Hannah, and Crump (2009) demonstrated that cue interaction effects in human contingency judgments reflect processing that occurs after the acquisition
of information. This finding is in conflict with a broad class of theories. We present a new postacquisition model, the criterion-calibration
model, that describes cue interaction effects as involving shifts in a report criterion. The model accounts for the Siegel
et al. data and outperforms the only other postacquisition model of cue interaction, Stout and Miller’s (2007) SOCR model. We present new data from an experiment designed to evaluate a prediction of the two models regarding reciprocal
cue interaction effects. The new data provide further support for the criterion-calibration model. 相似文献
5.
Thomas S. Hyde 《Learning & behavior》1976,4(3):293-298
Two experiments explored the effects of Pavlovian (tone-shock) CS+, CS?, and truly random control (TRC) contingencies on two different food-reinforced instrumental baselines. One food-reinforced baseline contained noncontingent shock, while the other did not. In the first experiment, a TRC contingency was shown to produce suppression of food-reinforced responding, while a CS? contingency did not. When noncontingent shock was added to the baseline, however, the TRC stimuli failed to produce suppression, and the CS? contingency increased response rates over baseline level. In a second experiment, the effects of TRC and CS+ contingencies were compared on these same two baselines. While the CS+ produced suppression on both shock and no-shock baselines, the TRC contingency again produced suppression on only the no-shock baseline. 相似文献
6.
This research on the solvent effects of 2-methyl-4,5-dimethoxy-3-oxo-2H-pyridizine (MDOP) in binary solvent systems on the
infrared spectra for MDOP in n-hexane/CHCl3 mixture solvents showed that there were three forms of carbonyl stretching vibration band [ν(C=O)] of MPOP as the mole fraction
of CHCl3 in the binary solvents changes. In pure n-hexane solvent, the ν(C=O) of MDOP appeared at a relatively high wavenumber. With
CHCl3 added, the ν(C=O) shifted to lower wavenumbers. Two new bands were observed over a certain range of mixture solvent compositions.
The origin of the bands was discussed in the terms of two kinds of hydrogen bond together with their individual dependence
on mixture composition. Comparisons were drawn for the solvent sensitivities of ν(C=O) for propanone.
Project supported by the Analysis and Measurement Foundation of Zhejiang Province, China. 相似文献
7.
In three experiments, the specificity of action of occasion setters was examined, using a discretetrial leverpress procedure. Rats’ acquisition of anXA+, A?, XB?, B+ discrimination, in which a single feature cue (X) signaled the reinforcement of responding in the presence of one target cue (A) and the nonreinforcement of responding during another target (B), was no more difficult than acquisition ofXA+, A?, X?, B+ orX+, A?, XB?, B+ discriminations, in whichX signaled only one target-response-reinforcement contingency. In transfer tests,X did not modulate responding controlled by other cues that were untrained or consistently reinforced, either when the elements of the compounds were presented serially or when they were presented simultaneously in training and testing. However, after serial, but not after simultaneous, compound training ,X facilitated responding controlled by a cue that was trained and then extinguished. Implications for the nature of occasion setting and configurai learning are discussed. 相似文献
8.
Brenda D. Williamson Gloria D. Campbell‐Whatley Ya‐yu Lo 《Psychology in the schools》2009,46(10):1074-1083
Group contingencies have the advantages of encouraging individual students to collectively feel responsible for appropriate and inappropriate classroom behaviors and have shown effectiveness in improving students' behavior. The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of a random dependent group contingency on the on‐task behaviors of six high school students with high incidence disabilities in a resource classroom. The study used an ABAB reversal design, and the results of the study indicated that the random dependent group contingency intervention was positively associated with increases in on‐task behaviors for three of the six participants. Limitations and implications are discussed in relation to dependent group contingencies for high school students. © 2009 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. 相似文献
9.
Douglas Reberg 《Learning & behavior》1980,8(1):120-128
Four pairs of rats were studied in a yoked control design intended to determine if an interim activity (schedule-induced drinking) was sensitive to operant contingencies. Food was always presented on a fixed-time 30-sec schedule. Additionally, a positive or negative operant contingency was in effect during the first 6 sec of each interval. The positive (drink/food) contingency produced an extra food presentation at the 6th second of an interval if the lead rat drank at least once in the first 6 sec. The negative (no-drink/food) contingency produced an extra food presentation only if the lead rat did not drink in the first 6 sec. Two pairs of rats were first exposed to the positive contingency and then to the negative contingency. Two pairs received training in the reverse order. In drink/food training, all lead rats developed patterns of drinking that produced extra food presentations in most intervals. There were some indications that the positive contingency facilitated early acquisition of drinking, but the yoked rats eventually developed temporal distributions and asymptotic levels of drinking comparable to those that occurred in lead rats. In no-drink/food training, the two lead rats initially exposed to the positive contingency showed high levels of drinking inappropriate to the negative contingency, but the two lead rats initially exposed to the negative contingency showed appropriately low levels of drinking. The latter effects seem attributable to the no-drink/food contingency. 相似文献
10.
Several experiments on human causal reasoning have demonstrated “discounting”-that the presence of a strong alternative cause
may decrease the perceived efficacy of a moderate target cause. Some, but not all, of these effects have been shown to be
attributable to subjects’ use of conditional rather than unconditional contingencies (i.e., subjects control for alternative
causes). We review experimental results that do not conform to the conditionalizing contingency account of causal judgment.
In four experiments, we demonstrate that there is “nonnormative discounting” above what is accounted for by conditionalization,
that discounting may depend on the nature of the question put to the subjects, and that discounting can be affected by motivation.
We conclude that because nonnormative discounting occurs for summary presentations as well as trial-by-trial presentations
of information and because nonnormative discounting depends on motivation, it is not a necessary result of cue competition
during the contingency learning process. 相似文献
11.
We tested whether the development of inhibitory strength, as measured by a summation test, is proportional to the strength
of the positive cue (P) against which the inhibitory cue (I) is trained. P predicted the outcome, whereas the co-occurrence
of P with I (PI) predicted no outcome. In Experiments 1, 2, and 3, we compared the latter design against a version in which
P was overshadowed by another cue (X). In this design, the compound PoX predicted the outcome, but PoIo predicted no outcome. In all three experiments, overshadowed cue Io was less inhibitory than I. In Experiment 4, a P produced by fewer training trials also supported weaker inhibitory learning.
Overall, the results were consistent with associative learning theories, especially Pearce’s (1994) configural model. Contingency
models need to make additional assumptions to accommodate this property of inhibitory learning. 相似文献
12.
Philippe Oberling Adam S. Bristol Helena Matute Ralph R. Miller 《Learning & behavior》2000,28(2):172-186
Miller and Matute (1996) showed that blocking is attenuated when the blocked conditioned stimulus (CS) is “biologically significant” (i.e., when the CS has the potential to elicit vigorous responding of any kind). To the extent that blocking is representative of cue competition, this finding suggests that biological significance protects CSs against cue competition effects in general. In the present experiments, we tested this possibility by examining the influence of biological significance of CSs on other examples of cue competition, namely, overshadowing, the relative stimulus validity effect, and the degraded contingency effect in rats. In Experiment 1, we found that intense auditory stimuli induced transient unconditioned lick suppression, thereby indicating that intense sounds were of high inherent biological significance. In Experiment 2A, we found that cues with high inherent biological significance were protected from overshadowing. In Experiment 2B, this finding was extended to cues with high acquired biological significance, which was obtained through prior pairings with a reinforcer of the valence opposite to that used in the overshadowing treatment. In Experiments 3 and 4, we found that cues with high inherent biological significance attenuated the relative validity effect and the degraded contingency effect, respectively. These results lend support to the view that biological significance (inherent and acquired) protects stimuli from cue competition effects, a finding that is problematic for many contemporary theories of learning. 相似文献
13.
Studies in laboratory animals have shown that the extinction of a conditioned stimulus, A, is regulated by the associative history of a second stimulus, X, when the two are extinguished in simultaneous compound: An inhibitory X protects A from extinction (Rescorla Learning & Behavior, 31, 124–132, 2003), whereas an excitatory X facilitates, and under some circumstances deepens, the extinction of A (Rescorla Journal of Experimental Psychology: Animal Behavior Processes, 26, 251–260, 2000, Journal of Experimental Psychology: Animal Behavior Processes, 32, 135–144, 2006). In the present study, we used the allergist task to examine whether the extinction of causal judgments in people is similarly regulated by the causal status of co-present stimuli. Experiment 1 showed that a cue trained as a conditioned inhibitor protected a target cue from extinction: The target extinguished in compound with the inhibitor was rated as being more causal of the outcome than was a target extinguished in compound with a control cue lacking inhibitory properties. In contrast, the remaining experiments showed that the extinction of a target cue was regulated by the presence, but not the causal status, of a partner cue: Target cues extinguished in compound were protected from extinction, and no evidence showed that an already extinguished partner conferred more protection (Exp. 2), or that an excitatory partner conferred any less protection (Exps. 2 and 3), or that an excitatory partner deepened the extinction of its already extinguished target. These findings are inconsistent with elemental models that rely on a common error term to explain associative changes in extinction. They are largely, but not completely, consistent with the configural model proposed by Pearce (Psychological Review, 94, 61–73, 1987), which predicts an ordering of levels of protection that was not observed. 相似文献
14.
Mathematical word problems represent a common item format for assessing student competencies. Automatic item generation (AIG) is an effective way of constructing many items with predictable difficulties, based on a set of predefined task parameters. The current study presents a framework for the automatic generation of probability word problems based on templates that allow for the generation of word problems involving different topics from probability theory. It was tested in a pilot study with N = 146 German university students. The items show a good fit to the Rasch model. Item difficulties can be explained by the Linear Logistic Test Model (LLTM) and by the random-effects LLTM. The practical implications of these findings for future test development in the assessment of probability competencies are also discussed. 相似文献
15.
Workbook reading achievement of five second-grade girls was assessed under two teacher-contact contingencies. Under one contingency, teacher contacts were made during on-task behavior. Under the other contingency, differential reinforcement of an incompatible behavior (DRI) was in effect, with teacher contacts contingent on students' hand-raising behavior. Both reading achievement and time on task were greater under the on-task contingency than under DRI for hand raising. 相似文献
16.
Yi-ping Tian Ai-fen Lin Mei-fu Gan Hao Wang Dan Yu Chong Lai Dan-dan Zhang Yi-min Zhu Mao-de Lai 《Journal of Zhejiang University. Science. B》2017,18(9):747-756
Aberrant DNA methylation has raised widespread attention in tumorigenesis. In this study, we aimed to investigate the changes of global DNA methylation and hydroxymethylation from normal to tumor tissues in colorectal cancer (CRC) and their association with the prognosis. The levels of genomic 5-hydroxymethylcytosine (5hmC) and 5-methylcytosine (5mC) in cancerous tissues were significantly lower than those in corresponding adjacent normal tissues. The genomic levels of 5mC were significantly positively correlated with 5hmC in normal and cancerous tissues (all P<0.05). The ratio of 5mC in cancerous tissues to matched normal tissues (C/N-5mC) was also significantly positively correlated with the ratio of 5hmC in cancerous tissues to matched normal tissues (C/N-5hmC) (P=0.01). The 5mC levels and C/N-5mC ratios decreased with age (all P<0.05). Higher 5mC and 5hmC levels were found in rectal than in colon tissues (all P<0.05). High levels of 5mC in cancerous tissues and high C/N-5hmC ratios were each associated with lymph node metastasis (all P<0.05). Survival analysis indicated that the C/N-5mC ratio (P=0.04) is an independent protective factor for overall survival. The data showed that patients with a combination of high C/N-5hmC and low C/N-5mC ratios tended to have a worse prognosis (P<0.01). Our findings showed that the C/N-5mC ratio may be an independent prognostic factor for CRC outcome. Patients with both a high C/N-5hmC ratio and a low C/N-5mC ratio exhibited the worst survival, suggesting that 5mC and 5hmC can be used as critical markers in tumorigenesis and prognosis estimation. 相似文献
17.
Roger W. Johnson 《Teaching Statistics》2019,41(3):106-109
The Borel board game consists of a series of experiments involving dice rolls, coin flips, or drawing colored balls from bags. Before each experiment is conducted, each player bets for or bets against a statement regarding the random outcome. We suggest that the collection of Borel experiments be used as a resource to illustrate probability calculation. 相似文献
18.
Peter C. Holland 《Learning & behavior》1989,17(3):269-279
In three experiments, transfer effects in appetitive serial feature-positive discrimination procedures (X→A+,A?) were examined with rat subjects. Nonreinforced presentations of the feature (X) alone had little or no effect on that cue’s ability to modulate responding to the target cue with which it had originally been trained (A) but enhanced its ability to modulate responding to another cue (B), which had been the target within another serial feature-positive discrimination (Y→B+,B?). These effects were observed when the nonreinforcedX presentations occurred either concurrently withX→A+,A? training or afterward. Regardless of whether or not nonreinforcedX presentations were administered,X did not modulate responding evoked by a cue that had not been trained within a serial feature-positive discrimination. These data help resolve conflicts in published reports of transfer or its absence in this conditioning situation, and shed light on the nature of the modulatory or occasion-setting powers of feature cues in serial feature-positive discrimination learning. 相似文献
19.
The ability to identify schematic knowledge is an important goal for both assessment and instruction. In the current paper, schematic knowledge of statistical probability theory is explored from the declarative-procedural framework using multiple methods of assessment. A sample of 90 undergraduate introductory statistics students was required to classify 10 pairs of probability problems as similar or different; to identify whether 15 problems contained sufficient, irrelevant, or missing information (text-edit); and to solve 10 additional problems. The complexity of the schema on which the problems were based was also manipulated. Detailed analyses compared text-editing and solution accuracy as a function of text-editing category and schema complexity. Results showed that text-editing tends to be easier than solution and differentially sensitive to schema complexity. While text-editing and classification were correlated with solution, only text-editing problems with missing information uniquely predicted success. In light of previous research these results suggest that text-editing is suitable for supplementing the assessment of schematic knowledge in development. 相似文献
20.
基于对信息化社会中概率统计教育重要性的认识,重点从四个方面论述了概率统计的教育价值：（1）概率统计的随机观念有助于人们认识和理解随机现象;（2）概率统计的学习有助于学生对数学的整体理解;（3）概率统计的数学方法有助于提高公民处理信息的能力;（4）概率统计的思想方法有助于培养学生的科学观念. 相似文献