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1.
We review socially biased learning about food and problem solving in monkeys, relying especially on studies with tufted capuchin
monkeys (Cebus apella) and callitrichid monkeys. Capuchin monkeys most effectively learn to solve a new problem when they can act jointly with
an experienced partner in a socially tolerant setting and when the problem can be solved by direct action on an object or
substrate, but they do not learn by imitation. Capuchin monkeys are motivated to eat foods, whether familiar or novel, when
they are with others that are eating, regardless of what the others are eating. Thus, social bias in learning about foods
is indirect and mediated by facilitation of feeding. In most respects, social biases in learning are similar in capuchins
and callitrichids, except that callitrichids provide more specific behavioral cues to others about the availability and palatability
of foods. Callitrichids generally are more tolerant toward group members and coordinate their activity in space and time more
closely than capuchins do. These characteristics support stronger social biases in learning in callitrichids than in capuchins
in some situations. On the other hand, callitrichids’ more limited range of manipulative behaviors, greater neophobia, and
greater sensitivity to the risk of predation restricts what these monkeys learn in comparison with capuchins. We suggest that
socially biased learning is always the collective outcome of interacting physical, social, and individual factors, and that
differences across populations and species in social bias in learning reflect variations in all these dimensions. Progress
in understanding socially biased learning in nonhuman species will be aided by the development of appropriately detailed models
of the richly interconnected processes affecting learning. 相似文献
2.
Three experiments were conducted to investigate the social learning and transmission of food preferences by excretory marking among adult male Norway rats. The experiments extend our earlier findings that rats prefer to eat from a food bowl marked by the excretory deposits of conspecifics and that this mechanism can result in the communication and social learning of food preferences (Laland & Plotkin, 1991). Here we investigate whether a tradition of food and food site preferences can become established by these means. Experiment 1 established that the residual cues deposited by rats lose their powers of communication as “markers” of food sites over a 72-h period. Experiment 2 showed that while a socially enhanced preference for one flavored diet could be transmitted from one animal to the next along a chain, it was unstable for an alternative diet. This suggests that social transmission may be more stable when it reinforces a prior preference than when it conflicts with one. In Experiment 3, the stability of socially transmitted food preferences was bolstered by the addition of a second process for the communication of diet preferences-namely, gustatory cues on the demonstrator’s breath. This finding suggests that when a socially transmitted trait is mediated by more than one process, the processes may interact, and the diffusion is likely to be more stable. 相似文献
3.
The present experiment was undertaken to examine directly the diet sampling behavior of wild Norway rats (Rattus norvegicus) faced with a choice among familiar and unfamiliar foods. First-generation, laboratory-reared wild Norway rats ate from four food cups. Three of the food cups were in unfamiliar locations and contained unfamiliar foods. The remaining food cup was in a familiar location and contained a familiar food. Subjects in a control group were offered the familiar food in all four locations. We found (1) that subjects in experimental and control conditions took equal amounts of time to first visit food cups in unfamiliar locations, (2) that subjects in the experimental condition (those with access to unfamiliar foods) ate at unfamiliar locations at a slower rate than did subjects in the control condition (those with access only to familiar food), (3) that subjects in the experimental condition were no more likely than subjects in the control condition to eat at one unfamiliar location at a time, and (4) that following a bout of eating at an unfamiliar food cup, subjects in the experimental condition waited no longer than subjects in the control condition before eating from a different unfamiliar food cup. We interpreted these data as indicating that although wild Norway rats are hesitant to eat unfamiliar foods, once they begin to eat such foods, they do not sample among them so as to facilitate identification of any toxin present. 相似文献
4.
5.
After a 75-sec intratrial delay, rats that had been shown the location of hidden food within a rectangular box correctly dug at that location in a second identical box, which had been moved into the same position within the room. For some rats, the opposing ends of the boxes were differentiated by distinctive corner panels; for others, there were no panels. When, during the delay interval, the turntable supporting both boxes was rotated by more than 180°, so that the second box no longer took the place of the first box within the room, the rats showed performance decrements. Nevertheless, 4 subjects selected the correct location significantly more often than the rotationally equivalent location, which corresponds to the correct location when the ends of the box are confused. The amount of rotation had no significant effect for any rat. In a final phase, the rats were denied perceptual access to cues outside the test box, which now had differentiating corner panels for all rats. Despite the distinctive panels, no rat showed a significant difference between correct digs and rotational errors; that is, no rat reliably distinguished one end of the box from the other. Results confirm previous findings that rats rely primarily on environmental shape to establish their heading. They ignore distinctive features of the surfaces that define environmental shape, even when the shape by itself is insufficient to establish a unique orientation. 相似文献
6.
Gordon R. Eastwood 《Journal of Experimental Education》2013,81(1):52-58
Sixty kindergarten, sixty second grade, and sixty fourth grade students performed several memory tasks under one of six conditions. The conditions differed as to the method of presentation of information. The study focused on developmental changes in children’s use of verbal, nonverbal, and spatial-positional cues for memory. The results, in general, showed consistent trends suggestive of a developmental change in representational ability, such that younger children tended to rely on visual cues and older children tended to rely on verbal cues to retain information. Children in all grades performed better when both visual and verbal cues were available and demonstrated an ability to utilize spatial-positional cues for retention. 相似文献
7.
Rachel L. Kendal Deborah M. Custance Jeremy R. Kendal Gillian Vale Tara S. Stoinski Nirina Lalaina Rakotomalala Hantanirina Rasamimanana 《Learning & behavior》2010,38(3):220-234
Interest in social learning has been fueled by claims of culture in wild animals. These remain controversial because alternative
explanations to social learning, such as asocial learning or ecological differences, remain difficult to refute. Compared
with laboratory-based research, the study of social learning in natural contexts is in its infancy. Here, for the first time,
we apply two new statistical methods, option-bias analysis and network-based diffusion analysis, to data from the wild, complemented
by standard inferential statistics. Contrary to common thought regarding the cognitive abilities of prosimian primates, our
evidence is consistent with social learning within subgroups in the ring-tailed lemur (Lemur catta), supporting the theory of directed social learning (Coussi-Korbel & Fragaszy, 1995). We also caution that, as the toolbox
for capturing social learning in natural contexts grows, care is required in ensuring that the methods employed are appropriate-in
particular, regarding social dynamics among study subjects. Supplemental materials for this article may be downloaded from
http://lb.psychonomic-journals.org/content/supplemental. 相似文献
8.
To determine whether observing components of periparturitional behavior affects the manifestation of those behaviors in virgin rats, virgins selected for nonplacentophagia and for the absence of spontaneous maternal behavior toward pups were exposed to stimulus rats that were giving birth, eating donor placenta, or eating lab chow. During observations, subjects could either eat donor placenta or just see and smell it. The subjects were tested subsequently for placentophagia and for the rate of onset of pup-induced maternal behavior. The results indicated that: (1) access to placenta in the presence of other rats led to placentophagia; (2) when such placentophagia occurred in conjunction with exposure to other rats that were giving birth or eating donor placenta, the subjects became permanent placentophages (otherwise, the subjects reverted and did not eat on subsequent placentophagia tests); (3) none of the observation conditions, regardless of the availability of placenta during observation, affected the maternal sensitization latency. The results are discussed in terms of social facilitation, exposure learning, and desensitization to exteroceptive stimuli. 相似文献
9.
The influence of cue type and cue configuration on radial-maze performance in rats was examined in two experiments. In the first experiment, it was found that rats provided with both salient intramaze and extramaze cues acquired the task faster than rats given only one set of cues. No difference in acquisition was found between a group trained with intramaze cues alone and a group trained with extramaze cues alone. In a cue-preference test, it was found that groups that had been trained with extramaze cues, intramaze cues, or both sets of cues relied on extra-maze cues to avoid visited arms when given both types of cues concurrently. When all groups were transferred to intramaze-cue-alone trials, only the group that had been originally trained with extramaze cues alone showed any disruption. Also, during the second half of the intramaze-cue-alone trials, the arrangement of these cues was randomly changed on each trial. This disruption in cue configuration did not deleteriously affect performance in any of the three groups; all remained above chance performance, although the performance of the group originally trained with extramaze cues alone was inferior to that of the other two groups. In Experiment 2, groups of rats were trained on daily alternating trials under intramaze-cue-alone and extramaze-cue-alone conditions. For one group, the configuration of intramaze cues was altered randomly on each trial; the other group had intramaze cues always presented in the same configuration over trials. It was found that acquisition was more rapid on intramaze trials in the group given static configurations. Also, acquisition of the extramaze task was faster than the intramaze task in the group given variable intramaze cue configurations. No difference was found between the intramaze and extramaze conditions in the group given static intramaze cue configurations. These data suggest that a static cue configuration may influence radial maze performance, but is not a necessary condition for such performance. 相似文献
10.
David R. Brodbeck 《Learning & behavior》1994,22(2):119-133
Two passerine species, black-capped chickadees (Parus atricapillus, a food-storing bird) and darkeyed juncos (Junco hyemalis, a nonstoring bird) were compared in a task in which they inspected four feeders in an aviary. Different feeders and different spatial locations were used on each trial. One of the feeders was baited. The subjects returned after a 5-min retention interval to find the baited feeder. Tests with transformations of the feeder array made it possible to determine what cues controlled the food-finding behavior. Chickadees responded to spatial cues preferentially over local color and pattern cues associated with the feeder (Experiments 2–4). The same ordering of responding was found in Experiment 1, a food-storing version of the food-finding task outlined above. Experiment 5 tested juncos on the food-finding task. Juncos responded to all types of information equally. The results are discussed in relation to the notion that because of their food-storing lifestyle, chickadees may need to rely more heavily on spatial cues than do juncos. 相似文献
11.
Experiments in captivity have provided evidence for social learning, but it remains challenging to demonstrate social learning
in the wild. Recently, we developed network-based diffusion analysis (NBDA; 2009) as a new approach to inferring social learning
from observational data. NBDA fits alternative models of asocial and social learning to the diffusion of a behavior through
time, where the potential for social learning is related to a social network. Here, we investigate the performance of NBDA
in relation to variation in group size, network heterogeneity, observer sampling errors, and duration of trait diffusion.
We find that observation errors, when severe enough, can lead to increased Type I error rates in detecting social learning.
However, elevated Type I error rates can be prevented by coding the observed times of trait acquisition into larger time units.
Collectively, our results provide further guidance to applying NBDA and demonstrate that the method is more robust to sampling
error than initially expected. Supplemental materials for this article may be downloaded from http://lb.psychonomic-journals.org/content/supplemental. 相似文献
12.
Pretend play begins very early in human life. A key question is why, when figuring out reality is young children’s major developmental task, they engage in its deliberate falsification. A second key question is how children know that pretend events are not real. Here we report three experiments addressing the latter question and providing indirect evidence for speculation on the first question. Children (N = 96) were shown actors eating or pretending to eat from covered bowls, and they had to indicate, on the basis of the actors’ behavioral signs, which actor was pretending to eat or had the real food. Even 24-month-olds could do so when the contents of the bowls were shown before the actions, and even when substitute objects were shown. However, when one of the bowls contained imaginary objects (i.e., was empty), even 30-month-olds could not indicate which actor was pretending. These studies show how the ability to interpret pretending from behavioral cues develops gradually as children’s representational abilities become more free of contextual support. We propose that, from an evolutionary and ontogenetic standpoint, pretend play might serve to heighten children’s sensitivity to social signs. This sensitivity could assist the development of theory of mind, with which social pretend play is associated. In this way, pretend play in humans might serve a similar purpose to play fighting in other species: In both cases, play might sensitize the organism to social signs that will allow for sophisticated coordination of social behavior later in life. 相似文献
13.
To recognize ironic sarcasm, adults may rely on either of 2 cues: the context in which the utterance is made, or the speaker's intonation. In 2 experiments comparing third graders (8–9 years old), sixth graders (11–12 years old), and adults, we investigated the development of children's ability to use these cues. In the first, children were able to recognize sarcasm when the speakers used sarcastic intonation but failed to do so without the intonation cue, even if the context strongly indicated a nonliteral interpretation. In the second experiment, subjects delivered dialogue with intonation they deemed appropriate—and justified their choices—based on contexts that either suggested sarcasm or not. Young children again appeared largely oblivious to contextually implied sarcasm. These results suggest that children initially depend more heavily on intonation than on context in recognizing sarcasm. 相似文献
14.
Lower order units combined into higher order functional units (e.g., letters into words) are calledchunks. The hypothesis tested here suggests that chunks are formed when memories of goal events signal other goal events, a signal capacity that can be reduced when memories are seriously overshadowed by other more valid cues calledgrouping cues. In support of this hypothesis, it was found, in each of three experiments employing rats in runways, that the capacity of the memory of nonreward to signal reward depended on its validity relative to that of two other situational cues, runway brightness cues and a change in brightness cues, from one trial to the next. Specifically, the capacity of the memory of nonreward to signal reward was much more seriously reduced when it was in competition with more valid situational cues (.33 vs. 1.00, Experiment 1; .50 vs. 1.00, Experiment 2) than when it was in competition with situational cues having either the same validity (.33, Experiment 1) or a slightly higher validity (.33 vs. .50, Experiment 3). It was also found that grouping each of two series was less effective in producing chunking than was grouping only one of the series. 相似文献
15.
The degree to which rats and monkeys base their discriminations of complex auditory stimuli (“tunes”) on frequency contours rather than on local features was investigated. In Experiment 1, groups of rats and monkeys trained with tunes as S+ and S? acquired a simple operant discrimination no faster than groups that received the same notes of each tune but in a new random order on each trial; neither did the groups differ on two transfer tests devised to detect learning of frequency contour in the tune-trained animals. Acquisition in the tune-trained and random-notes groups seemed to be based on the overall frequency difference between S+ and S?, which was about 1.5 octaves. In Experiment 2, S+ and S? were similar to each other with regard to overall frequency and individual notes, the most salient differentiating characteristic of the tunes being their tonal pattern. The tune-trained groups were clearly superior to the random-notes animals in acquisition, and an initial transfer test suggested that the former might have learned the discrimination on the basis of frequency contour. However, the detailed transfer tests of Experiment 3 strongly suggested that the tune-trained rats and monkeys based their discriminations primarily on local cues rather than on frequency contour. Based on the results of Experiment 4, the data of an earlier study that suggested frequency contour learning in monkeys and rats were reinterpreted in terms of control by local cues. 相似文献
16.
Michal Lavidor 《Journal of Research in Reading》2011,34(4):443-454
The research question here was whether whole‐word shape cues might facilitate reading in dyslexia following reports of how normal‐reading children benefit from using this cue when learning to read. We predicted that adults with dyslexia would tend to rely more on orthographic rather than other cues when reading, and therefore would be more affected by word shape manipulations. This prediction was tested in a lexical decision task on words with a flat or a non‐flat outline (i.e. without or with letters with ascending/descending features). We found that readers with dyslexia were significantly faster when reading non‐flat compared with flat words, while typical readers did not benefit from whole‐word shape cues. The interaction of participants' group and word shape was not modulated by word frequency; that is word outline shape facilitated reading for both rare and frequent words. Our results suggest that enhanced sensitivity to orthographic cues is developed in some cases of dyslexia when normal, phonology‐based word recognition processing is not exploited. 相似文献
17.
The relative importance of intramaze cues and extramaze cues in directing choice behavior on a radial arm maze was examined using a discrimination procedure which selectively rewarded rats for following only one set of cues. Rats in the intramaze group obtained food from a food cup on the end of each arm. Rats in the extramaze group obtained food from a food cup on a small platform just beyond the end of each arm. All rats were first shaped to perform correctly with the maze in a constant position. Then the maze was rotated to a new position after every choice. For rats in the intramaze group, the food moved with the arms, making intramaze cues relevant. For rats in the extramaze group, the food remained on the platforms (in the same position in the room), making extramaze cues relevant. Rats in the extramaze group performed almost perfectly during maze rotation, demonstrating that intramaze cues were not necessary to support accurate choice behavior. Rats in the intramaze group never performed better than chance, demonstrating that intramaze cues (from the rats, the reinforcement, and the apparatus) were not adequate to control choice behavior. The results of the present experiment are compared to those of other experiments describing the influence of “odor trails” or other olfactory stimuli on choice behavior in mazes. 相似文献
18.
One-trial context fear conditioning with immediate shock: The roles of transport and contextual cues
Rick A. Bevins Anthony S. Rauhut Janice E. Mcphee John J. B. Ayres 《Learning & behavior》2000,28(2):162-171
In three experiments, using a total of 120 albino rats, we assessed whether transportation cues might evoke some of the freezing
(i.e., defensive immobility) that we see in a context on a day following a footshock given immediately after placement in
that context. The results suggested that immediate shock could directly condition strong fear to both simulated and actual
transport cues. Although conditioning to transport cues explains some of the freezing that is seen on the test day, it does
not explain all of it. We also found evidence that some of the freezing is due to conditioning to permanent features of the
context in which the immediate shock is given. The results support a role for transport cues in theories of context conditioning
and argue against shock-processing accounts of the conditioning deficit that results from immediate shock. 相似文献
19.
Recent evidence indicates that prior learning about a set of cues may determine how new cues are processed. If subjects are
taught that two reliable predictors of an outcome do not summate when the cues are presented together (i.e., subadditive pretraining),
the subjects will tend to show a less profound blocking effect when trained with different cues. Three experiments investigated
the conditions necessary for subadditive pretraining to generalize to new cues. Experiment 1 demonstrated that subadditive
pretraining is less effective in reducing blocking when it is experienced in a context other than that in which the blocking
training is experienced. In Experiment 2, the effectiveness of subadditive pretraining waned with time. Experiment 3 showed
that subadditive pretraining is more effective when the temporal characteristics of pretraining cues are similar to those
of the cues used in blocking training. These results provide information concerning the conditions under which learning will
generalize from one set of cues to another. 相似文献
20.
Guidance counselling practices develop against specific economic,social and technical backgrounds. They are also encompassed by certainideological frameworks. These same practices also have complex relations with theproblematics of human sciences. Current research in these fields proffersa far more complicated portrait of subjects, occupations and theirrelations than that previously envisaged. The subject is seen as a multivocalsocial actor who can find in the occupational field social forms ofidentification and as an individual, the organisation of who's mind is– at least in part – the product of internalisation of various socialrelations structures. The concept of a dialectic relation between occupational identity, occupational interactions and work systemimplies a need for considerable caution when using guidance softwareprograms or questionnaires about interests, values or types. However,counselling processes appear to be influenced above all by implied orexplicit social, political and ethical goals. 相似文献