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1.
Open online education experiences persistently high dropout rates, and the efficacy of dropout interventions has been questioned. Despite considerable research, dropout reasons are not fully understood, and further in-depth investigation has been called for. Prior qualitative retention studies have frequently relied on smaller samples that are unable to generate deeper appreciation of dropout reasons. Over 200 in-depth interviews were therefore conducted with students that had dropped out of open online education. The probability-based qualitative sample facilitated capture of subthemes down to a 5% incidence level or frequency of occurrence. Thematic analysis revealed 41 subthemes within 10 broad dropout reasons. While the broad dropout themes have been identified previously, the subthemes are new and provide richer understanding. This study also captured students' suggestions for what might have prevented their dropout. Thematic analysis identified 19 subthemes within 5 broad intervention themes that respond to the root dropout causes. Many intervention subthemes address personal and learner context dropout factors that have often been considered uncontrollable and unavoidable. This paper therefore redefines dropout in open online education and offers new insights for improving retention. It also provides a strategic framework for evaluating dropouts and prioritising student-informed interventions that respond to the main dropout causes.

Practitioner notes

What is already known about this topic
  • Persistently high open online education dropout suggests existing interventions are ineffective.
  • Prior qualitative retention studies identified the main dropout reasons, but small sample sizes failed to generate deeper insights and more in-depth investigation has been called for.
What this paper adds
  • A probability-based qualitative sample of 226 participants captured dropout subthemes down to a 5% level of incidence or frequency of occurrence.
  • Thematic analysis identified 41 subthemes, within 10 broad dropout reasons. These subthemes are new and offer richer understanding.
  • Thematic analysis also identified 19 subthemes within 5 broad dropout intervention areas that students suggested could have prevented their dropout. These include new insights for addressing dropout causes that have often previously been considered unavoidable.
Implications for practice and/or policy
  • The strategic framework provides a retention management approach that prioritises responding to the main dropout causes with student-informed interventions.
  • This approach and the deeper understanding afforded by robust qualitative investigation should help reduce persistently high dropout rates.
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2.
A significant body of the literature has documented the potential of Augmented Reality (AR) in education, but little is known about the effects of AR-supported instruction in tertiary-level Medical Education (ME). This quasi-experimental study compares a traditional instructional approach with supplementary online lecture materials using digital handout notes with a control group (n = 30) and an educational AR application with an experimental group (n = 30) to investigate any possible added-value and gauge the impact of each approach on students' academic performance and training satisfaction. This study's findings indicate considerable differences in both academic performance and training satisfaction between the two groups. The participants in the experimental group performed significantly better than their counterparts, an outcome which is also reflected in their level of training satisfaction through interacting and viewing 3D multimedia content. This study contributes by providing guidelines on how an AR-supported intervention can be integrated into ME and provides empirical evidence on the benefits that such an approach can have on students' academic performance and knowledge acquisition.

Practitioner notes

What is already known about this topic
  • Several studies have applied various Augmented Reality (AR) applications across different learning disciplines.
  • The effects of AR on students' perceptions and achievements in higher education contexts is well-documented.
  • Despite the increasing use of AR-instruction in Medical Education (ME), there has been no explicit focus on AR's effects on students' academic performance and satisfaction.
What this paper adds
  • This quasi-experimental study compares the academic performance and training satisfaction of students in an experimental group (AR) and a control group (handout notes).
  • This study provides instructional insights into, and recommendations that may help students achieve better academic performance in AR-supported ME courses.
  • The experimental group reported greater training satisfaction than their counterparts.
Implications for practice and policy
  • Students who followed the AR-supported instruction achieved better academic performance that those in the control group.
  • AR-supported interventions encourage active learning and lead to significant performance improvement.
  • The experimental group outperformed the control group in academic performance and training satisfaction measurements, despite the lower experimental group's lower pre-test performance scores.
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3.
As universities moved to remotely taught courses during the COVID-19 pandemic, the importance of maintaining academic integrity in online environments intensified. In response, this study explores instructors' perceptions about the role of online proctoring as a tool for their courses with the intent of enhancing the understanding of online proctoring's usefulness in ensuring academic integrity and the factors that may be swaying instructors' adoption decisions. An online survey was completed by 158 instructors at a variety of higher education institutions with 118 responding to an open-ended question that allowed respondents to share any additional thoughts about or experiences with using online proctoring. A thematic review of the qualitative comments illustrates the multifaceted impact of online proctoring on instructors and students. Results identified instructors' perceived benefits and challenges of online proctoring to them, their students and the learning process. In addition, instructors voiced numerous legal, ethical and social concerns about the use of online proctoring, including concerns related to students' privacy. Despite these concerns, some instructors identified strong use cases for online proctoring while others provided alternative strategies for ensuring academic integrity in online courses. As institutions consider the role of online proctoring in ensuring academic integrity, a holistic approach that balances instructional design best practices, student-friendly policies and proctoring tools is recommended to serve the complex needs and concerns of instructors, students and their institutions.

Practitioner notes

What is already known about this topic

  • Prior research findings are mixed as to whether proctoring is valuable for ensuring academic integrity in online courses.
  • Studies investigating grade performance in proctored versus unproctored exam settings have conflicting results; however, studies have found that students completing proctored formative exams perform better on summative exams than students completing non-proctored formative exams.

What this paper adds

  • Qualitative data were collected to provide an overview of instructors' perceptions about and experiences with online proctoring.
  • Analysis suggests that online proctoring is beneficial to some instructors, students and the overall learning process. At the same time, its use is also concerning to other instructors and students. Among the issues raised by instructors are concerns for student privacy, increases in student test anxiety and discriminatory proctoring practices.

Implications for practice and/or policy

  • Institutions must be proactive in ensuring that the use of online proctoring aligns with their institutional values and the changing legal landscape.
  • Institutional policies should strive to find a balance between ensuring academic integrity and promoting a positive experience for students and instructors. Since there are strong use cases for online proctoring, these policies should include flexibility whenever possible.
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4.
To test the suitability of an automatic system for emotional management in the classroom following the control-value theory of achievement emotions (CVT) framework, the performance of an emotional expression recognition software of our creation is evaluated in an online synchronous context. Sixty students from the Faculty of Education at the University of Alicante participated in 16 educational activities recording close-ups of their faces and completing the AEQ emotional self-report, as well as detailed reports from the subsequent review of their videos. In addition, they completed the VCQ-36 test to measure their volitional competencies and relate their influence on their emotional response. The results indicate a high coherence between the emotional expressions detected by the automatic system and the detailed emotional self-reports, but insufficient precision to meet the CVT requirements. On the other hand, both the AEQ test results and the emotion expression recognition software suggest students' preference for participative activities as opposed to passive ones. Meanwhile, statistical analysis results indicate that volitional competencies seem to influence the emotional response of students in the educational context, although the AI system does not show sufficient sensitivity in this field. Implications and limitations of this study for future work are discussed.

Practitioner notes

What is already known about this topic

  • Student motivation and involvement in the learning process are highly related to appropriate emotional regulation, which can be associated with particular educational activities, strategies and methodologies.
  • Deep learning technology based on convolutional neural networks feeds automatic systems focused on facial expression recognition from image analysis.

What this paper adds

  • There is high coherence between the emotional expressions detected by the AI system and the students' emotional self-reports, but the AI system provides just emotional valences, insufficient to meet the CVT framework.
  • Both emotional self-reports and the emotion recognition software suggest students' preference for active educational activities as opposed to passive ones.
  • Volitional competencies seem to influence the emotional response of students in the educational context.

Implications for practice and/or policy

  • It is possible to use automatic systems to effectively monitor the emotional response of students in the learning process.
  • Only if sensitivity improved, a real-time, easy-to-interpret emotional expression recognition software interface could be implemented to assist teachers with the emotional management of their classes within the CVT framework, maximizing their motivation and engagement.
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5.
Postsecondary institutions have a legal responsibility to ensure that students have access to a safe learning environment. While institutions adopt policies and hire administrators to protect students from harm, many are underprepared to support students when these harmful incidents happen online. This is of increased concern now that online aggression is pervasive across universities worldwide. While faculty, administrators and students agree that online aggression is a significant issue and that institutions ought to provide prevention and response services, there is concern that these efforts might violate privacy norms. We used the theory of privacy as contextual integrity (CI) to explore the tensions that postsecondary students and staff perceive regarding student privacy when responding to incidents of online aggression. To do so, we conducted focus groups with undergraduate students and student affairs administrators from a Historically Black College and University (HBCU) in the Mid-Atlantic USA. Our analysis surfaced three considerations that inform students' and staff's decision to report an incident of online aggression: their closeness to the person making the post, their perception of the online post content as a real threat and their knowledge of an authority figure who could help resolve the situation. We used CI theory to explain how these considerations can inform institutional policy, practice and future research.

Practitioner notes

What is already known about this topic

  • Online aggression is a pervasive issue at postsecondary institutions worldwide that can contribute to psychological, academic and developmental issues.
  • Postsecondary students and staff are unsure of how to respond to incidents of online aggression.
  • There is a gap in policies and procedures for responding to online aggression at postsecondary institutions.

What this paper adds

  • A novel use of Nissenbaum's (2010) theory of contextual integrity to understand students' and staff's perceptions of privacy.
  • Students' and staff's decisions to intervene or report an online aggression incident are determined by their relationship to the perpetrator, the severity of the social media post and their knowledge of who to tell on campus.
  • Students and staff are reluctant to inform the police out of fear of violence against the perpetrator.

Implications for practice and/or policy

  • Raise awareness about responding to online aggression incidents.
  • Implement online bystander intervention training programs to increase awareness and self-efficacy to intervene in unclear situations.
  • Develop clear policies regarding online aggression, as well as a trustworthy procedure for how to respond.
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6.
While interactive touchscreens are currently entering into educational practice, little is known about what this means for learning in early childhood and, in particular, how touchscreens shape action and communication. In this paper, we examine the interactions of 2-year-olds and their teachers in a multilingual preschool in Sweden. We analyse the communicative environment between the children, teachers and shared touchscreens and books in the context of reading. A mixed-methods analysis was used, taking a concept of action that includes both verbal, non-verbal utterances and digital touch. The analysis shows a reconfiguration to the interactional dynamic where children perform comparable amounts of actions in sessions with the touchscreen and book reading but less talk during the touchscreen sessions. However, while talking less, children display other types of communicative actions. We analyse the changing interactional dynamic that follows, its implications to learning and early childhood pedagogical practice and how interaction can be reconceptualised as cycles of communication and action in which educational scaffolding unfolds.

Practitioner notes

What is already known about this topic
  • Touchscreens are a significant part of children's lives and educational curricula.
  • There is considerable uncertainty on how touchscreens can be incorporated into early childhood education.
  • Little is known about how educational social interaction changes with touchscreens such as iPads.
What this paper adds
  • A mixed methods multimodal analysis of the changing actions and dynamics of iPads as compared with bookreading.
  • Children's patterns of communication change towards less talk and more bodily communication, while teachers’ actions remain somewhat similar.
  • Touch actions change the dynamics of interaction, can alter the pedagogical situation and bring a reconceptualisation towards a cyclical and embodied view of interaction.
Implications for practice and/or policy
  • New patterns of action may require a recalibration of educational practices.
  • Teachers need to attend to new sets of touch actions that children use to communicate and act with as displays of knowledge.
  • The use of touch screens should be seen as complementary to established practices of language and literacy training (such as book reading) rather than replacing them.
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7.
This conceptual study uses dynamic systems theory (DST) and phenomenology as lenses to examine data privacy implications surrounding wearable devices that incorporate stakeholder, contextual and technical factors. Wearable devices can impact people's behaviour and sense of self, and DST and phenomenology provide complementary approaches for emphasizing the subjective experiences of individuals that occur with the use of wearable data. Privacy is approached through phenomenology as an individual's lived bodily experience and DST emphasizes the self-regulation and feedback loops of individuals and their uses of wearable data. The data collection, analysis and communication of wearable data to support learning systems alongside privacy implications for each are examined. The IoT, cloud computing, metadata and algorithms are discussed as they relate to wearable data, pointing out privacy risks and strategies to minimize harm.

Practitioner notes

What is already known about this topic

  • Data privacy is a complex topic and is approached through different perspectives, influencing the degree of an individual's data autonomy.
  • Wearable technology is increasing in the consumer market and offers great potential to learning environments.

What this paper adds

  • Extends extant literature on dynamic systems theory and phenomenology, contributing these perspectives to educational research in the context of student data privacy and wearable technologies.
  • Provides a framework to understand the complex and contingent ways that privacy can be understood in the collection, analysis, and communication of wearable data to support learning.

Implications for practice and/or policy

  • Higher education faculty and educational policymakers should consider various interactions in systems and among systems of how wearable data collection may be analysed, communicated and stored, potentially exposing students to privacy harms.
  • Multiple actors in learning systems must engage in continuous and evolving feedback loops around data security, consent, ownership and control to determine who has access to student data, how it is used and for what purposes.
  • The EU's General Data Protection and Regulation offers one of the most comprehensive frameworks for higher education institutions and faculty around the world to follow for protecting student data privacy.
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8.
Online professional development programmes have a long tradition in adult education. However, in early childhood education, such programmes are only just beginning to be developed. Before online professional development courses can be made inclusive, accessible and widely available to early childhood educators, they must meet a few basic requirements. The present study provides insights into essential aspects that need to be considered when setting up online professional development programmes, a field which is still in its infancy in Austria. The results of a representative survey (n = 317) demonstrated that early childhood educators' digital competencies are highly variable and cannot be taken for granted. The survey results also stress the need to provide educators with functional digital devices appropriate to their work environment. Early childhood educators' interest in online professional development programmes is very high, in recognition of the advantages afforded by flexible participation options independent of users' time constraints or location. The development of attractive, compelling and accessible online professional development courses can contribute to current professionalisation efforts in the field of early childhood education.

Practitioner notes

What is already known about this topic
  • Online professional development has already a very long tradition in the field of adult vocational training but not in Early Childhood Education.
  • The possibility of attending online professional development programmes independent of a participant's time constraints or location is viewed as a particularly beneficial advantage.
  • Online professional development programmes positively affect the professionalisation of educators. For this reason, they must increasingly be integrated into the field of early childhood education.
What this paper adds
  • In the field of early childhood education in German-speaking regions, online professional development training courses are only beginning to be developed.
  • This paper examines the challenges and barriers for early childhood educators associated with implementing online professional development programmes for early childhood educators.
  • The survey was conducted during the COVID-19 pandemic and includes current data on the ongoing digitalisation boom.
Implications for practise and/or policy
  • Online professional development courses should not be understood as competition for conventional face-to-face programmes. Instead, they act as a useful supplement.
  • Media competencies are a fundamental prerequisite for everyday professional life—early childhood educators need functional media devices, stable internet connections, and support structures in IT and computer literacy.
  • Early childhood educators require effective instruction in using online professional development programmes to expand online professional development programmes in their field. They must also address compelling topics in early childhood education relevant to educators' practise.
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9.
Formative assessment is considered to be helpful in students' learning support and teaching design. Following Aufschnaiter's and Alonzo's framework, formative assessment practices of teachers can be subdivided into three practices: eliciting evidence, interpreting evidence and responding. Since students' conceptions are judged to be important for meaningful learning across disciplines, teachers are required to assess their students' conceptions. The focus of this article lies on the discussion of learning analytics for supporting the assessment of students' conceptions in class. The existing and potential contributions of learning analytics are discussed related to the named formative assessment framework in order to enhance the teachers' options to consider individual students' conceptions. We refer to findings from biology and computer science education on existing assessment tools and identify limitations and potentials with respect to the assessment of students' conceptions.

Practitioner notes

What is already known about this topic
  • Students' conceptions are considered to be important for learning processes, but interpreting evidence for learning with respect to students' conceptions is challenging for teachers.
  • Assessment tools have been developed in different educational domains for teaching practice.
  • Techniques from artificial intelligence and machine learning have been applied for automated assessment of specific aspects of learning.
What does the paper add
  • Findings on existing assessment tools from two educational domains are summarised and limitations with respect to assessment of students' conceptions are identified.
  • Relevent data that needs to be analysed for insights into students' conceptions is identified from an educational perspective.
  • Potential contributions of learning analytics to support the challenging task to elicit students' conceptions are discussed.
Implications for practice and/or policy
  • Learning analytics can enhance the eliciting of students' conceptions.
  • Based on the analysis of existing works, further exploration and developments of analysis techniques for unstructured text and multimodal data are desirable to support the eliciting of students' conceptions.
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10.
Understanding students' privacy concerns is an essential first step toward effective privacy-enhancing practices in learning analytics (LA). In this study, we develop and validate a model to explore the students' privacy concerns (SPICE) regarding LA practice in higher education. The SPICE model considers privacy concerns as a central construct between two antecedents—perceived privacy risk and perceived privacy control, and two outcomes—trusting beliefs and non-self-disclosure behaviours. To validate the model, data through an online survey were collected, and 132 students from three Swedish universities participated in the study. Partial least square results show that the model accounts for high variance in privacy concerns, trusting beliefs, and non-self-disclosure behaviours. They also illustrate that students' perceived privacy risk is a firm predictor of their privacy concerns. The students' privacy concerns and perceived privacy risk were found to affect their non-self-disclosure behaviours. Finally, the results show that the students' perceptions of privacy control and privacy risks determine their trusting beliefs. The study results contribute to understand the relationships between students' privacy concerns, trust and non-self-disclosure behaviours in the LA context. A set of relevant implications for LA systems' design and privacy-enhancing practices' development in higher education is offered.

Practitioner notes

What is already known about this topic
  • Addressing students' privacy is critical for large-scale learning analytics (LA) implementation.
  • Understanding students' privacy concerns is an essential first step to developing effective privacy-enhancing practices in LA.
  • Several conceptual, not empirically validated frameworks focus on ethics and privacy in LA.
What this paper adds
  • The paper offers a validated model to explore the nature of students' privacy concerns in LA in higher education.
  • It provides an enhanced theoretical understanding of the relationship between privacy concerns, trust and self-disclosure behaviour in the LA context of higher education.
  • It offers a set of relevant implications for LA researchers and practitioners.
Implications for practice and/or policy
  • Students' perceptions of privacy risks and privacy control are antecedents of students' privacy concerns, trust in the higher education institution and the willingness to share personal information.
  • Enhancing students' perceptions of privacy control and reducing perceptions of privacy risks are essential for LA adoption and success.
  • Contextual factors that may influence students' privacy concerns should be considered.
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11.
Preparing data-literate citizens and supporting future generations to effectively work with data is challenging. Engaging students in Knowledge Building (KB) may be a promising way to respond to this challenge because it requires students to reflect on and direct their inquiry with the support of data. Informed by previous studies, this research explored how an analytics-supported reflective assessment (AsRA)-enhanced KB design influenced 6th graders' KB and data science practices in a science education setting. One intact class with 56 students participated in this study. The analysis of students' Knowledge Forum discourse showed the positive influences of the AsRA-enhanced KB design on students' development of KB and data science practices. Further analysis of different-performing groups revealed that the AsRA-enhanced KB design was accessible to all performing groups. These findings have important implications for teachers and researchers who aim to develop students' KB and data science practices, and general high-level collaborative inquiry skills.

Practitioner notes

What is already known about this topic
  • Data use becomes increasingly important in the K-12 educational context.
  • Little is known about how to scaffold students to develop data science practices.
  • Knowledge Building (KB) and learning analytics-supported reflective assessment (AsRA) show premises in developing these practices.
What this paper adds
  • AsRA-enhanced KB can help students improve KB and data science practices over time.
  • AsRA-enhanced KB design benefits students of different-performing groups.
  • AsRA-enhanced KB is accessible to elementary school students in science education.
Implications for practice and/or policy
  • Developing a collaborative and reflective culture helps students engage in collaborative inquiry.
  • Pedagogical approaches and analytic tools can be developed to support students' data-driven decision-making in inquiry learning.
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12.
Maintaining students' privacy in higher education, an integral aspect of learning design and technology integration, is not only a matter of policy and law but also a matter of design ethics. Similar to faculty educators, learning designers in higher education play a vital role in maintaining students' privacy by designing learning experiences that rely on online technology integration. Like other professional designers, they need to care for the humans they design for by not producing designs that infringe on their privacy, thus, not causing harm. Recognizing that widely used instructional design models are silent on the topic and do not address ethical considerations such as privacy, we focus this paper on how design ethics can be leveraged by learning designers in higher education in a practical manner, illustrated through authentic examples. We highlight where the ethical responsibility of learning designers comes into the foreground when maintaining students' privacy and well-being, especially in online settings. We outline an existing ethical decision-making framework and show how learning designers can use it as a call to action to protect the students they design for, strengthening their ethical design capacity.

Practitioner notes

What is already known about this topic
  • Existing codes of ethical standards from well-known learning design organizations call upon learning designers to protect students' privacy without clear guidance on how to do so.
  • Design ethics within learning design is often discussed in abstract ways with principles that are difficult to apply.
  • Most, if not all, design models that learning design professionals have learned are either silent on design ethics and/or do not consider ethics as a valid dimension, thus, making design ethics mostly excluded from learning design graduate programs.
  • Practical means for engaging in ethical design practice are scarce in the field.
What this paper adds
  • A call for learning designers in higher education to maintain and protect students' privacy and well-being, strengthening their ethical design capacity.
  • A demonstration of how to use a practical ethical decision-making framework as a designerly tool in designing for learning to maintain and protect students' privacy and well-being.
  • Authentic examples—in the form of vignettes—of ethical dilemmas/issues that learning designers in higher education could face, focused on students' privacy.
  • Methods—using a practical ethical decision-making framework—for learning design professionals in higher education, grounded in the philosophy of designers as the guarantors of designs, to be employed to detect situations where students' privacy and best interests are at risk.
  • A demonstration of how learning designers could make stellar design decisions in service to the students they design for and not to the priorities of other design stakeholders.
Implications for practice and/or policy
  • Higher education programs/institutions that prepare/employ learning designers ought to treat the topics of the designer's responsibility and design ethics more explicitly and practically as one of the means to maintain and protect students' privacy, in addition to law and policies.
  • Learning designers in higher education ought to hold a powerful position in their professional practice to maintain and protect students' privacy and well-being, as an important aspect of their ethical design responsibilities.
  • Learning designers in higher education ought to adopt a design thinking mindset in order to protect students' privacy by (1) challenging ideas and assumptions regarding technology integration in general and (2) detecting what is known in User Experience (UX) design as “dark patterns” in online course design.
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13.
While computing has been (re)introduced into the basic education curricula in various countries, its actual implementation appears to be inconsistent. There are schools in which computing education is commonplace, while the implementation seems to be lagging behind in others. There is emerging evidence that some teachers do not consider computing education relevant, meaningful and important and, thus, intentionally neglect its provision. This is problematic as understanding the principles of code and computing is crucial for agentic citizenship in the post-digital era. This paper argues that one main reason for these teachers' reluctance is the economy-driven discursive framing of computing education, which is in contrast with the socialization-oriented manner in which teachers approach their work. To contribute to resolving this issue, the present paper introduces a transversal approach to computing education. It conceptualizes code as a sociomaterial text with social and societal histories and consequences. Theoretically and conceptually, the approach draws on the pedagogy of multiliteracies. The leading idea is that digital technologies are examined with students from functional and critical dimensions and through micro and macro perspectives. The use of wearable sports technologies, such as activity wristbands, are used as practical examples to put the theoretical ideas into context.

Practitioner notes

What is already known about this topic
  • Computing has been (re)introduced in the curricula of basic education in various countries.
  • Some teachers are found to be reluctant to teach computing in basic education.
What this paper adds
  • This paper introduces a transversal multiliteracies-based approach for computing education.
Implications for practice and policy
  • Computing should be included in curricula and classrooms in a holistic manner that includes both functional and critical approaches to computing.
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14.
This paper suggests that artificial intelligence in education (AIEd) can be fruitfully analysed as ‘policies frozen in silicon’. This means that they exist as both materialised and proposed problematisations (problem representations with corresponding solutions). As a theoretical and analytical response, this paper puts forward a heuristic lens that can provide insights into how AI technologies (or advocated AI technologies) function as proposed solutions to certain problematisations based on various imaginaries about how education and learning are best performed or supported. The combined reading of imaginaries and problematisations can thereby aid in our understanding of why and how visions of learning and education are framed in relation to AIEd developments. The overall ambition is to advance theoretical and analytical approaches towards an educational system which is (anticipated as) increasingly permeated by AI systems—systems that also support and implement, more or less, invisible models, standards and assessments of learning, as well as more grand visions of (technology-augmented) education in society.

Practitioner notes

What is already known about this topic

  • Artificial intelligence in education (AIEd) is repeatedly presented as a solution for a range of educational ‘problems’.
  • This means that such ‘solutions’ must also frame certain aspects as ‘problems’.
  • Such problems and ‘solutions’ (problematisations) also exist within certain imaginaries of the present times and of the future, where these problematisations are presented as particularly significant and acute, and promoting specific anticipations of learning and ideals of education.

What this paper adds

  • An exposition of problematisations in educational settings.
  • An exposition of educational imaginaries.
  • A heuristic lens for understanding the ‘present’ and ‘future’ in a particular imaginary as entangled in, and dependent on, a certain ‘past’.

Implications for practice and/or policy

  • The approach presented in this paper provides a heuristic lens for examining how AI technologies (or advocated AI technologies) function as proposed solutions to problematisations based on imaginaries about how education and learning are best performed or supported.
  • This aids our understanding of how and why certain visions of learning and education are framed in relation to AIEd developments (real or imagined).
  • It also advances theoretical and analytical approaches towards an educational system, which is (anticipated as) increasingly permeated by AI systems—systems that also support and implement, more or less, invisible models, standards and assessments of learning, as well as more grand visions of (technology-augmented) education in society.
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15.
Due partly to the multimodal and multiscalar nature of technology applications, there lacks theories to explain successful technology integration in teaching and learning in higher education. Such multidisciplinary theories developed primarily within Western contexts as behaviourism, cognitivism, constructivism, connectivism, collaborationism, TPACK framework and authentic learning theory have been used to underpin technology-enhanced teaching and learning globally. However, their primary focus on basic education and their sensitivity to contextual reality seem to restrict their salience and fecundity to successfully explain technology integration in higher education in the Global South, including Africa. For more contextual relevance and significance, the embodiment in curricula and pedagogy of African knowledge systems and emerging societal needs and challenges is thus critical. Drawing on Asabiyya and Ubuntu humanistic philosophies respectively from Northern and Southern Africa and Yoruba empiricist and Zara Yacob rationalist epistemologies from Western and Eastern Africa, this study proposes African philosophical perspectives to underpin technology integration in higher education. The epistemologies define the nature of student and faculty engagements and strategies, whereas the humanistic philosophies offer values that could guide ethical technology use and engagement. Technologies are conceived alternatively as knowledge banks, communication media and cognitive tools to think through and with. Implications for further research and practice are identified.

Practitioner notes

What is already known about this topic

  • Multidisciplinary theories developed primarily within Western contexts are used to underpin technology-enhanced teaching and learning globally.
  • Their primary focus on basic education and their sensitivity to socio-cultural and economic contextual reality restrict their salience and fecundity to successfully explain technology integration in teaching and learning in higher education in the Global South, including Africa.
  • African philosophical, theoretical, conceptual and methodological thinking is critical for successful technology integration.

What this paper adds

  • This study interrogated how African philosophies of humanity and knowledge could support successful technology integration in teaching and learning in Africa.
  • Drawing on Asabiyya and Ubuntu philosophies, respectively, from Northern and Southern Africa, the study proposes strategies for making the oppressive faculty–student relationships rampant in African campuses more humane and emancipatory.
  • Drawing on Yoruba empiricist and Zara Yacob rationalist epistemological orientations from Western and Eastern Africa, this study proposes strategies for supporting truly engaging and empowering pedagogies within technology-enhanced spaces.

Implications for practice and/or policy

  • The purpose of education in successful technology-enhanced spaces needs to aim at improving student capacities and skills for further learning and to ensure full participation in practice communities within and outside higher education.
  • The content of education or curriculum needs to primarily embody African/local philosophical, theoretical, conceptual and methodological thinking, as well as emerging community needs and challenges.
  • The method of education and student assessment need to support and promote the cultivation of student skills and capabilities as well as values and ethics highly needed in their communities and beyond.
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16.
While gamification and game-based learning have both been demonstrated to have a host of educational benefits for university students, many university educators do not routinely use these approaches in their teaching. Therefore, this systematic review, conducted using the PRISMA guidelines, sought to identify the primary drivers and barriers to the use of gamification and game-based learning by university educators. A search of multiple databases (Web of Science, Scopus and EBSCO (Business Source Complete; ERIC; Library, Information Science & Technology Abstracts)) identified 1330 articles, with 1096 retained after duplicates were removed. Seventeen articles (11 quantitative, two mixed-methods and four qualitative) were included in the systematic review. The primary drivers described by the educators that positively influenced their gamification and game-based learning usage were their beliefs that it encourages student interactions and collaborative learning; provides fun and improves engagement; and can easily be used by students. Alternatively, the university educators' major barriers included a lack of time to develop gamification approaches, lack of proven benefits and classroom setting issues. Many of these and other less commonly reported drivers and barriers can be categorised as attitudinal, design-related or administrative in nature. Such categorisations may assist university educators, teaching support staff and administrators in better understanding the primary factors influencing the utilisation of gamification and game-based learning and develop more effective strategies to overcome these barriers to its successful implementation.

Practitioner notes

What is already known about this topic

  • Gamification and game-based learning may have many benefits for university students.
  • The majority of university educators do not routinely use gamification and game-based learning in their teaching.

What this paper adds

  • University educators' major drivers that positively influence the use of gamification and game-based learning include their perceptions that it encourages student interactions and collaborative learning, provides fun and improves engagement and can easily be used by students.
  • University educators' major barriers that negatively influence the use of gamification and game-based learning include their perceptions of a lack of time to develop gamification approaches, lack of proven benefits and classroom setting issues.
  • These drivers and barriers may be classified as attitudinal, design-related and administrative, with these categories providing a useful way for universities to develop strategies to better support educators who wish to use these approaches in their teaching.

Implications for practice and policy

  • Attitudinal factors such as university educators' intention to use gamification and game-based learning are influenced by a host of their perceptions including attitude, perceived usefulness and ease of use.
  • A range of design-related and administrative barriers may need to be overcome to increase the use of gamification and game-based learning in the university sector.
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17.
An extraordinary amount of data is becoming available in educational settings, collected from a wide range of Educational Technology tools and services. This creates opportunities for using methods from Artificial Intelligence and Learning Analytics (LA) to improve learning and the environments in which it occurs. And yet, analytics results produced using these methods often fail to link to theoretical concepts from the learning sciences, making them difficult for educators to trust, interpret and act upon. At the same time, many of our educational theories are difficult to formalise into testable models that link to educational data. New methodologies are required to formalise the bridge between big data and educational theory. This paper demonstrates how causal modelling can help to close this gap. It introduces the apparatus of causal modelling, and shows how it can be applied to well-known problems in LA to yield new insights. We conclude with a consideration of what causal modelling adds to the theory-versus-data debate in education, and extend an invitation to other investigators to join this exciting programme of research.

Practitioner notes

What is already known about this topic

  • ‘Correlation does not equal causation’ is a familiar claim in many fields of research but increasingly we see the need for a causal understanding of our educational systems.
  • Big data bring many opportunities for analysis in education, but also a risk that results will fail to replicate in new contexts.
  • Causal inference is a well-developed approach for extracting causal relationships from data, but is yet to become widely used in the learning sciences.

What this paper adds

  • An overview of causal modelling to support educational data scientists interested in adopting this promising approach.
  • A demonstration of how constructing causal models forces us to more explicitly specify the claims of educational theories.
  • An understanding of how we can link educational datasets to theoretical constructs represented as causal models so formulating empirical tests of the educational theories that they represent.

Implications for practice and/or policy

  • Causal models can help us to explicitly specify educational theories in a testable format.
  • It is sometimes possible to make causal inferences from educational data if we understand our system well enough to construct a sufficiently explicit theoretical model.
  • Learning Analysts should work to specify more causal models and test their predictions, as this would advance our theoretical understanding of many educational systems.
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18.
Recent years have seen a surge of calls for personalization of education. Automatised adaptivity in serious games has been advocated as a potential instantiation of such calls. Yet little is known about the extent to which personalised learning through automatised adaptivity poses an advantage for language learning over generalised teacher-led sequencing in digital, game-based learning environments. The goal of this paper is to address this question by comparing the learning outcomes in reading accuracy and fluency of didactic sequences designed by EFL teachers or by an adaptive algorithm. A total of 67 participants completed several proficiency and reading skills pretest and posttest and used the iRead system for 6 months. Results showed that all learners made progress in reading skills, but no significant differences were found between the two sequences in relation to the development of reading skills. It was also shown that adaptivity works best if it leads to increase in the number of games per feature. Results are discussed in the context of previous findings, and the role of adaptivity and sequencing is critically assessed.

Practitioner notes

What is already known about this topic?
  • Serious games have the potential to aid learning but empirical research is needed.
  • Findings about the efficiency of serious games are mixed.
  • Current and reviewed versions of the Simple View of Reading constitute a suitable framework to measure reading acquisition.
What this paper adds?
  • It contributes to the growing corpus of research on digital serious games.
  • It provides empirical evidence on the use of an adaptive system in formal education.
  • Comparing a teacher-led sequence to an algorithmic adaptive sequence on the same digital serious game has never been done before.
  • The paper shows the need to obtain both system-internal and system-external data in order to capture the impact of gameplay on the development of L2 reading skills.
Implications for practise and/or policy
  • It sheds some light on how certain game designs may actually help practise with different degrees of intervention by teachers.
  • It is interesting for teachers to use an adaptive sequence that they can check and intervene in if needed.
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19.
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20.
In the present paper, we assess whether website rating systems are useful for selecting educational apps for preschool age children. We selected the 10 highest scoring and 10 lowest scoring apps for 2–4-year-olds from two widely used websites (Good App Guide; Common Sense Media). Apps rated highly by the two websites had a higher educational potential as assessed by a validated questionnaire for evaluating the educational potential of apps and were more likely to include a learning goal and feedback compared to low scoring apps. However, high scoring apps scored on average just 9/20 for indicators of educational potential, and both high and low scoring apps had poor language quality as determined by psycholinguistic and construction type analyses. We argue that website rating systems should also include quality of feedback, adjustable content, social interactions, storyline and a more fine-grained analysis of language in their assessments.

Practitioner notes

What is already known about this topic
  • Appropriately designed apps for preschool age children have the potential to teach early school readiness skills.
  • Selecting high quality educational apps for preschool age children is challenging.
  • The children's app marketplace is currently unregulated.
What this paper adds
  • We assess whether two leading app rating websites are useful for selecting educational apps for preschool age children.
  • Children's apps rated highly by two app website rating systems had a higher educational potential than low rated apps as measured by a research informed app evaluation tool.
  • In-depth analysis of the language in apps shows that highly rated children's apps on app rating websites may not enrich a child's early language environment.
Implications for practice and/or policy
  • Children's app rating website assessments should include potential for feedback, language, adjustable content, storyline and social interactions.
  • Policy should be implemented for app ratings in the app stores or on website app rating systems.
  相似文献   

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