共查询到20条相似文献，搜索用时 610 毫秒
1.
L. Caitlin Elmore Anthony A. Wright Jacquelyne J. Rivera Jeffrey S. Katz 《Learning & behavior》2009,37(2):204-213
Three pigeons were trained in a three-item simultaneous same/different task. Three of six stimulus combinations were not trained (untrained set) and were tested later. Following acquisition, the
subjects were tested with novel stimuli, the untrained set, training-stimulus inversions, and object shape and color manipulations.
There was no novel-stimulus transfer—that is, no abstract-concept learning. Two pigeons showed partial transfer to untrained
pairs and good transfer to stimulus inversions, suggesting that they had learned the relationship between the stimuli. Lack
of transfer by the third pigeon suggests item-specific learning. The somewhat surprising finding of relational learning by
2 pigeons with only six training pairs suggests restricted-domain relational learning that was controlled more by color than
by shape features. Individual differences of item-specific learning by 1 pigeon and relational learning by 2 others demonstrate
that this task can be learned in different ways and that relational learning can occur in the absence of novel-stimulus transfer. 相似文献
2.
We report the first successful demonstration of a simultaneous, two-itemsame-different (S/D) discrimination by 6 pigeons, in which nonpictorial color and shape stimuli were used. This study was conducted because
the majority of recently successful demonstrations of S/D discrimination in pigeons have employed displays with more than
two items. Two pairs of stimulus items were simultaneously presented on a touch screen equipped computer monitor. Pigeons
were reinforced for consistently pecking at either thesame (i.e., identical) or thedifferent (i.e., nonidentical) pair of items. These pairs were created from combinations of simple colored shapes drawn from a pool
of six colors and six shapes. After acquiring the discrimination with item pairs that differed redundantly in both the shape
and the color dimensions, the pigeons were tested for transfer to items that varied in only one of these dimensions. Although
both dimensions contributed to the discrimination, greater control was exhibited by the color dimension. Most important, the
discrimination transferred in tests with novel colored, shaped, and sized items, suggesting that the mechanisms involved were
not stimulus specific but were more generalized in nature. These results suggest that the capacity to judge S/D relations
is present in pigeons even when only two stimuli are used to implement this contrast. 相似文献
3.
The current study examined the effectiveness of self-explanation prompts, visual signaling cues, and a combination of the two features on middle school students’ (N = 202) algebra learning. Also explored were the differential effects of features for students with faulty conceptual knowledge (evidenced by a higher prevalence of making errors during problem solving) on learning. That is, we assessed whether students who make prevalent conceptual errors predictive of algebra performance differentially benefit from design features. Participants were randomly assigned to complete 1 of 4 sets of worked example assignments supplemented with self-explanation prompts (n = 51), visual signaling cues (n = 49), both features (n = 51), or neither feature (n = 51). Worked examples supplemented with either self-explanation prompts or signaling cues led to greater learning from pre- to posttest in comparison to the worked example control, with practically meaningful effects. The effect of assignments supplemented with signaling cues was moderated by error prevalence. Those who made errors more frequently demonstrating misunderstanding of algebraic concepts (e.g., the meaning of a coefficient) benefited significantly more from visual signaling cues alone than self-explanation prompts alone or control assignments. These findings highlight the importance of considering differential effects of design features when used in combination or in isolation, particularly for struggling students. 相似文献
4.
Pigeons were trained in a forced choice task with four alternatives to categorize arrays consisting of 1, 3, 5, or 8 dots.
Before the pigeons chose a comparison stimulus, they were required to peck each dot sequentially. A single peck to a dot,
which was defined as an indicating response, changed the color of the dot so that it was differentiated from those that remained to be counted. The pigeons
successfully learned to categorize the numerical arrays and then displayed transfer to novel arrays consisting of two, four,
six, or seven dots, in a manner according to the order of 1 < 2 < 3 < 4 < 5 < 6 < 7 < 8. Subsequent tests revealed that the
pigeons discriminated the stimuli by relying on the number of indicating responses. They also utilized multiple information
(surface area, time, and other confounded events), but this was of minor significance, and after training, the pigeons were
able to disregard these cues. 相似文献
5.
Four experiments were performed to determine the stimulus characteristics that favor the development of conditional stimulus control in the single reversal paradigm with pigeon subjects. In Experiment 1, pigeons were trained on a successive discrimination between tone frequencies ranging from 350 to 3500 Hz in a particular houselight context condition (houselight-on or -off). The subjects then were trained on the reversal of the tone discrimination in the alternative context. Subsequent tone-frequency generalization testing in the two contexts indicated that they had failed to gain conditional control over the pigeons’ discriminative performance. Such control was obtained in Experiment 2, in which the two problems were alternated daily for 32 sessions of training. The gradients then peaked at the appropriate S+ value in each context. In Experiment 3, the key colors (blue vs. red) served as contexts while pigeons learned a successive discrimination in which the discriminative cues were houselight-on versus houselight-off conditions. This was followed by a reversal of the discrimination in the alternative key-color context condition. The key colors were effective conditional cues in this situation. In a previous experiment (Thomas, McKelvie, & Mah, 1985), key color had been ineffective as a conditional cue when the discriminative cues were lines superimposed on the colored background. In Experiment 4, key color was effective when the color and lines were presented on a single key as in the earlier experiment, but were sequenced such that the onset of the key color preceded and then overlapped the presentation of the lines. We concluded that conditional discriminations are easiest for pigeons when visual cues are used, but the conditional and discriminative cues must be presented in such a way that they do not combine to form a psychological compound. 相似文献
6.
Pigeons were trained to produce one serial list in the presence of a green background cue and another serial list in the presence of a red background cue when the items for both serial lists were presented on each trial. This demonstrated a combination of serial learning and conditional discrimination learning not previously shown in pigeons. Specifically, when presented with four geometric forms, A B C D, in random locations of a five-key display, the pigeons learned to peck A B C when the background was green and A B D when the background was red. Accuracy on the conditional string ranged from 73% to 85%. Transfer tests using different locations of the stimuli on the keys showed positive transfer, thus ruling out learning of specific locations as the basis of the accurate performance. Above-chance performance was maintained when the conditional colors were presented only on the key that did not contain one of the serial stimuli. The results are interpreted in terms of a chaining model that postulates that the sequential selections were controlled by cues produced by both onset of the trial and prior selections within the trial. 相似文献
7.
The influence of dimensional organization on pigeon texture perception was examined in a simultaneous conditional discrimination procedure. Six experienced pigeons were reinforced for pecking at a small block oftarget elements randomly located within a larger array ofdistractor elements in each texture stimulus. Target/distractor differences in color, size, orientation, and combinations of these dimensions were examined. In Experiment 1, the influence of target/distractor similarity on performance was investigated by using different forms of unidimensional and conjunctively organized texture stimuli made of two and three dimensions. Targets infeature displays, in which the two regions consistently differed along a single dimension, were located more accurately than targets inconjunctive displays, where a combination of values from all dimensions defined each region. In Experiment 2, a tradeoff between response speed and accuracy was found in the pigeons’ processing of conjunctive displays. In Experiment 3, the number of distractors differentially influenced the localization of feature and conjunctive targets. Overall, the pigeons’ reactions to these feature and conjunctive stimuli paralleled those of humans, suggesting that functionally equivalent mechanisms may mediate the perceptual grouping, search, and discrimination of textured multidimensional stimuli in both species. 相似文献
8.
We studied behavioral flexibility, or the ability to modify one’s behavior in accordance with the changing environment, in pigeons using a reversal-learning paradigm. In two experiments, each session consisted of a series of five-trial sequences involving a simple simultaneous color discrimination in which a reversal could occur during each sequence. The ideal strategy would be to start each sequence with a choice of S1 (the first correct stimulus) until it was no longer correct, and then to switch to S2 (the second correct stimulus), thus utilizing cues provided by local reinforcement (feedback from the preceding trial). In both experiments, subjects showed little evidence of using local reinforcement cues, but instead used the mean probabilities of reinforcement for S1 and S2 on each trial within each sequence. That is, subjects showed remarkably similar behavior, regardless of where (or, in Exp. 2, whether) a reversal occurred during a given sequence. Therefore, subjects appeared to be relatively insensitive to the consequences of responses (local feedback) and were not able to maximize reinforcement. The fact that pigeons did not use the more optimal feedback afforded by recent reinforcement contingencies to maximize their reinforcement has implications for their use of flexible response strategies under reversal-learning conditions. 相似文献
9.
How does developing attentional control operate within visual short‐term memory (VSTM)? Seven‐year‐olds, 11‐year‐olds, and adults (total n = 205) were asked to report whether probe items were part of preceding visual arrays. In Experiment 1, central or peripheral cues oriented attention to the location of to‐be‐probed items either prior to encoding or during maintenance. Cues improved memory regardless of their position, but younger children benefited less from cues presented during maintenance, and these benefits related to VSTM span over and above basic memory in uncued trials. In Experiment 2, cues of low validity eliminated benefits, suggesting that even the youngest children use cues voluntarily, rather than automatically. These findings elucidate the close coupling between developing visuospatial attentional control and VSTM. 相似文献
10.
We studied transposition in pigeons by training them to select the smaller (or the larger) of a pair of circles. In training, different groups of pigeons were given one pair, two pairs, or three pairs of circles along the size dimension. Testing included two stimulus pairs for which, according to theoretical postdiscrimination generalization gradients, transposition should decrease from one-pair to two-pair to three-pair training. On the basis of the results of our earlier study (Lazareva, Wasserman, & Young, 2005) and contrary to these predictions, we expected that transposition should increase from one-pair to two-pair to three-pair training. We found that multiple-pair discrimination training enhanced transposition, which, on average, rose from 47% (one-pair training) to 52% (two-pair training) to 64% (three-pair training). In addition, we found that the overall similarity of the testing pair to the training pair(s) modulated the strength of relational responding. These results demonstrate that encountering multiple instances of a rule leads to stronger relational learning, even when reinforcement history predicts the opposite trend. These results also provide strong evidence against stimulus generalization as the sole determinant of relational responding in transposition. 相似文献
11.
In Experiment 1, we used six procedures in a series of unsuccessful attempts to obtain relational learning using trial-unique pictorial stimuli in pigeons. The Experiment began by testing conventional (three-key) matching-to-sample (MTS) and nonmatching-to-sample (NMTS); in subsequent stages of the experiment we progressively incorporated features of techniques that do obtain relational learning in a single-key apparatus. In Experiment 2, we found that acquisition of NMTS using pictorial stimuli proceeded no more rapidly than acquisition of a conditional discrimination. Experiment 3 showed that acquisition of NMTS was more rapid than acquisition of MTS when plain colored stimuli were used, but not when pictorial stimuli were used. These three experiments suggest that pigeons do not recognize pictorial stimuli shown on different keys. In Experiment 4, between-key recognition was obtained with familiar but not with novel pictorial stimuli. It is argued that perceptual learning facilitates the detection of the between-key identity of complex stimuli, and that perceptual processes may underlie the difficulty in demonstrating relational learning in pigeons. 相似文献
12.
Lanny Fields 《Learning & behavior》2018,46(1):79-88
Using trial-and-error training, eight pigeons did not learn to discriminate between 45° and 135° lines, but did learn to discriminate between red and green colors. Control by line tilt was induced by stimulus fading that did not include reinforcement while fading out the colors. After establishing the red–green discrimination, low-intensity lines were superimposed on colors and were gradually faded in. All of this was done using reinforcement. At the end of the line fade-in, the lines had not acquired control of responding. Finally, color intensity was gradually faded out in the absence of reinforcement, and the lines acquired discriminative control by six of the eight pigeons. Thus, reinforcement during the color fade-out was not necessary for the acquisition of discriminative control by the lines during fading. Acquisition of control by lines was attributed to overshadowing, the reduction of stimulus blocking by generalization, and the evocation of correct responding by the colors while the participants were attending to the lines. This last process was also responsible for the induction of discriminative control during sensory preconditioning, higher order conditioning, and response transfer in equivalence classes. Errors, however, were not correlated with discrimination learning during stimulus fading. Finally, transfer of control occurred very quickly with or without errors. 相似文献
13.
William J. Kermis 《科学教学研究杂志》1984,21(6):609-621
Everyone experiences some anxiety while taking an examination. High-test-anxious (HTA) and low-test-anxious (LTA) students are described by two characteristic differences: frequency and intensity of anxious responses and attentional direction to testing cues. The purposes of this study were threefold: (1) to report “potent” testing cues (i.e., 90% response agreement for both intensity and frequency) that were identified by HTA and LTA students; (2) to report differences between HTA and LTA students for frequencies and intensities of responses to testing cues; and (3) to report differences between HTA and LTA students of attentional direction to testing cues. A pool of 396 males and females who were enrolled in physical geology completed the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory. A random sample consisting of 93 HTA and 40 LTA subjects completed the Test Cues Identification Questionnaire (TCIQ). The TCIQ consists of 28 disruptive items and 27 helpful items. Subjects responded with both frequency and intensity ratings for all of the 55 items in the TCIQ. Results revealed that 22 items were viewed by subjects as “potent” testing cues. Empirical evidence obtained did not support previous theoretical reports of differences between HTA and LTA students for either frequency and intensity of anxious responses or attentional direction to the set of disruptive and helpful testing cues. Although test anxiousness did not appear to be associated with those two characteristics differences, a discriminant analysis revealed 24 items in the TCIQ which significantly, χ2 (24) = 47.59, p < 0.004, separated HTA and LTA subjects responses. Apparently, HTA and LTA students differ in their responses to specific disruptive and helpful cues but not in their responses to the set of testing cues as was previously postulated. 相似文献
14.
In two experiments, we developed a new methodology for studying complex stimulus control by spatial sequences of letters generated
by artificial grammars. An artificial grammar is a system of rules that defines which letter sequences or strings are “grammatical.”
In Experiment 1, pigeons learned to respond differently to strings conforming to a grammar versus strings that were nongrammatical
distortions. Several different criteria all suggested that performance was controlled both by some short chunks of strings
shared between reinforced training strings and novel transfer strings and by more complex sequential regularities. In Experiment
2, pigeons quickly and accurately learned to respond differently to strings conforming to one or the other of two different
artificial grammars. As in Experiment 1, performance was controlled both by some short chunks and by more complex sequential
regularities. The results are interpreted in terms of family resemblance and pose new goals for theories of complex stimulus control. 相似文献
15.
Effects of repeated testing on short- and long-term memory performance across different test formats
This study examined whether practice testing with short-answer (SA) items benefits learning over time compared to practice testing with multiple-choice (MC) items, and rereading the material. More specifically, the aim was to test the hypotheses of retrieval effort and transfer appropriate processing by comparing retention tests with respect to practice testing format. To adequately compare SA and MC items, the MC items were corrected for random guessing. With a within-group design, 54 students (mean age = 16 years) first read a short text, and took four practice tests containing all three formats (SA, MC and statements to read) with feedback provided after each part. The results showed that both MC and SA formats improved short- and long-term memory compared to rereading. More importantly, practice testing with SA items is more beneficial for learning and long-term retention, providing support for retrieval effort hypothesis. Using corrections for guessing and educational implications are discussed. 相似文献
16.
When two cues are reinforced together (in compound), most associative models assume that animals learn an associative network
that includes direct cue–outcome associations and a within-compound association. All models of associative learning subscribe
to the importance of cue–outcome associations, but most models assume that within-compound associations are irrelevant to
each cue’s subsequent behavioral control. In the present article, we present an extension of Van Hamme and Wasserman’s (Learning
and Motivation 25:127–151, 1994) model of retrospective revaluation based on learning about absent cues that are retrieved through within-compound associations.
The model was compared with a model lacking retrieval through within-compound associations. Simulations showed that within-compound
associations are necessary for the model to explain higher-order retrospective revaluation and the observed greater retrospective
revaluation after partial reinforcement than after continuous reinforcement alone. These simulations suggest that the associability
of an absent stimulus is determined by the extent to which the stimulus is activated through the within-compound association. 相似文献
17.
In three experiments, we investigated the contextual control of attention in human discrimination learning. In each experiment, participants initially received discrimination training in which the cues from Dimension A were relevant in Context 1 but irrelevant in Context 2, whereas the cues from Dimension B were irrelevant in Context 1 but relevant in Context 2. In Experiment 1, the same cues from each dimension were used in Contexts 1 and 2, whereas in Experiments 2 and 3, the cues from each dimension were changed across contexts. In each experiment, participants were subsequently shifted to a transfer discrimination involving novel cues from either dimension, to assess the contextual control of attention. In Experiment 1, measures of eye gaze during the transfer discrimination revealed that Dimension A received more attention than Dimension B in Context 1, whereas the reverse occurred in Context 2. Corresponding results indicating the contextual control of attention were found in Experiments 2 and 3, in which we used the speed of learning (associability) as an indirect marker of learned attentional changes. Implications of our results for current theories of learning and attention are discussed. 相似文献
18.
This research focused on the changes in stimulus control that influence an animal’s ability to master a behavioral skill. We assessed stimulus control by (a) predictive environmental cues (panel lights) and (b) practice cues resulting from the subject’s own behavior, as rats learned to complete a left–right lever-press sequence. Following a demonstration of overshadowing by Reid, Nill, and Getz (Behavioural Processes 84: 511–515, 2010), in which stimulus control by the panel lights overshadowed control by practice cues, four additional experiments replicated and assessed this overshadowing effect. In Experiment 1, we discovered a powerful asymmetry: Rats failed to adapt to a lights → reversed-lights transition, but adapted immediately to a reversed-lights → lights transition. Experiment 2 was designed to measure the interactions between these stimulus conditions and practice cues. In Experiment 3, we measured the effect of these stimulus conditions on acquisition rates. Finally, in Experiment 4 an ABA design was used to assess the effects of prior exposure to condition A on B → A transitions, and we found that prior exposure generally reversed the effects observed in B → A transitions presented first or in isolation. We discuss feature-positive bias and spatial S–R compatibility as potential explanations of the observed insensitivity to cues that should be, at face value, highly predictive of food during the acquisition of a behavioral skill. Perfectly predictive cues in behavior chains do not always guide behavior. 相似文献
19.
Sadahiko Nakajima 《Learning & behavior》1997,25(4):413-426
Four experiments were performed to explore modulatory transfer after serial feature-ambiguous (F-A) discrimination (X→A+, A?, X→B?, B+) in Pavlovian keypeck conditioning (autoshaping) with pigeons. Diffuse features were used in the first three experiments, and no modulatory transfer was found: (1) There was no modulatory transfer between two concurrently trained F-A tasks; (2) modulatory transfer to conditioned and then extinguished stimuli was not observed; and (3) responding to the targets (A and B) after their contingencies were reversed was not affected by presentation of their original feature stimulus (X). Transfer between two serial F-A tasks was obtained in the last experiment, in which keylights were used as features, but other evidence indicated that this was due to stimulus generalization between the features. Together, the results strongly suggest that specific target-food occasion setting or configural learning is the underlying mechanism of F-A discrimination. 相似文献
20.
We trained 4 pigeons in a numerical bisection task to discriminate between pairs of keylight flashes with a ratio of 1∶3 (2
vs. 6, 4 vs. 12, and 8 vs. 24) that were presented in a sample phase. Responses to the blue key were reinforced after a sequence
of a larger number of flashes, and responses to the white key were reinforced after a sequence of a smaller number of flashes.
The intervals between flashes in the sample phase were randomized to attenuate the covariation of temporal cues with flash
number. Pigeons responded accurately in each of the discriminations, with typically 85%–90% correct responses. Transfer tests
showed that the proportion of large responses increased with number and performance generalized to larger values outside the training ranges. Psychometric functions
superposed when plotted on a relative scale, and estimates of Weber fractions were approximately constant, suggesting that
variability was scalar. However, contrary to previous research in nonhumans, bisection points were located at the arithmetic,
not geometric, mean. Hierarchical logistic regressions confirmed significant control over responding by number beyond that
attributable to temporal cues. These results show that pigeons are able to respond accurately in a relative numerosity discrimination
with successively presented visual stimuli, although the nature of the numerical representation and response rule remains
unclear. 相似文献