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1.
In three experiments with rat subjects, we examined the effects of trial spacing in appetitive conditioning. Previous research
in this preparation suggests that self-generated priming of the conditional stimulus (CS) and/or unconditional stimulus (US)
in short-term memory is a cause of the trial-spacing effect that occurs with intertrial intervals (ITIs) of less than 240
sec. Experiment 1 nonetheless showed that a trial-spacing effect still occurs when ITIs are increased beyond 240 sec, and
that the effect of ITI over 60–1,920 sec on conditioned responding is best described as a linear function. In Experiment 2,
some subjects were removed from the context during the ITIs, preventing extinction of the context. Removal abolished the advantage
of the long ITI, suggesting the importance of exposure to the context during the long ITI. Experiment 3 still produced a trial-spacing
effect in a within-subjects design that controlled for the level of context conditioning and reinforcement rate in the absence
of the CS. Overall, the results are most consistent with the idea that adding time to the ITI above 240 sec facilitates conditioning
by extinguishing context-CS associations—and possibly context-US associations—that otherwise interfere with CS-US learning
through retrieval-generated priming (see, e.g., Wagner, 1981). 相似文献
2.
In two experiments, two groups of rats were trained in a navigation task according to either a continuous or a partial schedule
of reinforcement. In Experiment 1, animals that were given continuous reinforcement extinguished the spatial response of approaching
the goal location more readily than animals given partial reinforcement—a partial reinforcement extinction effect. In Experiment
2, after partially or continuously reinforced training, animals were trained in a new task that made use of the same reinforcer
according to a continuous reinforcement schedule. Animals initially given partial reinforcement performed better in the novel
task than did rats initially given continuous reinforcement. These results replicate, in the spatial domain, well-known partial
reinforcement phenomena typically observed in the context of Pavlovian and instrumental conditioning, suggesting that similar
principles govern spatial and associative learning. The results reported support the notion that salience modulation processes
play a key role in determining partial reinforcement effects. 相似文献
3.
Maya M. Khanna Michael J. Cortese Katharine S. Birchwood 《Scientific Studies of Reading》2013,17(5):407-439
In two experiments we examined how children's nonword pronunciations are influenced by learning words. In Experiment 1, children pronounced nonwords before and after learning words sharing orthographic rimes with the nonwords. These rimes varied in spelling-to-sound consistency and regularity. Children's nonword pronunciations were more sensitive to consistency and regularity after instruction than before. Experiment 2 expanded upon Experiment 1 by modifying the instruction to highlight regularity and consistency in rime unit neighborhoods and by including both younger (M age = 7.6) and older (M age = 9.92) participants. After instruction, Experiment 2 participants demonstrated greater sensitivity to rime unit consistency and regularity than Experiment 1 participants. In both experiments, the children, especially the younger participants, made more adultlike pronunciations after instruction than before. We conclude that learning words varying in consistency and regularity increased the children's sensitivity to these properties. 相似文献
4.
Three experiments demonstrated that, following the extinction of an established conditioned stimulus (CSA—e.g., tone), the
pairing of a novel, cross-modal stimulus (CSB—e.g., light) with the unconditioned stimulus (US) results in strong recovery
of responding to the extinguished CSA. Experiment 1 demonstrated that the recovery of responding to CSA is not the result
of US reinstatement but is attributable to pairings of CSB with the US. Experiment 2 demonstrated that the recovery of responding
is specific to CSA and is not the result of cross-modal generalization. Experiment 3 revealed that a large number of CSB-US
pairings in Stage 1 significantly reduced the amount of recovery to CSA during subsequent CSB-US trials. Experiment 3 also
provided unexpected evidence of cross-modal secondary extinction. The extinction and subsequent recovery of responding seen
in the present experiments is discussed with respect to possible contributions from contextual associations, CS processing,
US processing, conditioned response expression, and layered excitatory associations. 相似文献
5.
In Experiment 1, we used six procedures in a series of unsuccessful attempts to obtain relational learning using trial-unique pictorial stimuli in pigeons. The Experiment began by testing conventional (three-key) matching-to-sample (MTS) and nonmatching-to-sample (NMTS); in subsequent stages of the experiment we progressively incorporated features of techniques that do obtain relational learning in a single-key apparatus. In Experiment 2, we found that acquisition of NMTS using pictorial stimuli proceeded no more rapidly than acquisition of a conditional discrimination. Experiment 3 showed that acquisition of NMTS was more rapid than acquisition of MTS when plain colored stimuli were used, but not when pictorial stimuli were used. These three experiments suggest that pigeons do not recognize pictorial stimuli shown on different keys. In Experiment 4, between-key recognition was obtained with familiar but not with novel pictorial stimuli. It is argued that perceptual learning facilitates the detection of the between-key identity of complex stimuli, and that perceptual processes may underlie the difficulty in demonstrating relational learning in pigeons. 相似文献
6.
In three human causal learning experiments, we examined attentional modulation in the blocking task, in which participants
typically learn little about a novel cue B when it is paired with a previously trained, predictive cue A. Evidence indicates
that this blocking training led to a decrement in attention to the blocked cue B. The present experiments addressed whether
this decrease in attention to the blocked cue could be better explained as being due to lateral inhibition from the pretrained
cue A to the blocked cue B, or as a cue-specific property that is not conditional on the presence or absence of other stimuli.
Strong effects of learned predictiveness were observed on participants’ causal judgments (Experiment 1) and choice behavior
(Experiments 2 and 3). However, no evidence for lateral inhibitory processes emerged in any of the experiments, despite explicit
attempts to maximize experimental sensitivity to this effect. The results are discussed in the context of formal models of
the operation of attentional processes in human and animal learning. 相似文献
7.
Roxana Moreno Alfred Valdez 《Educational technology research and development : ETR & D》2005,53(3):35-45
The cognitive load and learning effects of dual-code and interactivity—two multimedia methods intended to promote meaningful
learning—were examined. In Experiment 1, college students learned about the causal chain of events leading to the process
of lightning formation with a set of words and corresponding pictures (Group WP), pictures (Group P), or words (Group W).
Some students were presented with the organized causal chain of events to study, whereas others were given a self-organization
task. Consistent with a cognitive theory of multimedia learning, Condition WP was the highest in instructional efficiency
for retention and transfer. However, contrary to our predictions, having students organize the multimedia materials was detrimental
to transfer. Two follow-up experiments tested the hypotheses that the negative effects of interactivity were due to students'
lack of time control (Experiment 2) and the form of feedback (Experiment 3). The findings showed that interactivity was effective
when students were asked to evaluate their answers before receiving corrective feedback from the system.
This research was supported by the CAREER 0238385 grant from the National Science Foundation. Any opinions, findings, and
conclusions or recommendations expressed in this material are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views
of the National Science Foundation. Casey Frechette and Paul Gibson created the multimedia materials used in these studies. 相似文献
8.
Numerous studies over the past decade support the claim that infants are equipped with powerful statistical language learning mechanisms. The primary evidence for statistical language learning in word segmentation comes from studies using artificial languages, continuous streams of synthesized syllables that are highly simplified relative to real speech. To what extent can these conclusions be scaled up to natural language learning? In the current experiments, English‐learning 8‐month‐old infants’ ability to track transitional probabilities in fluent infant‐directed Italian speech was tested (N = 72). The results suggest that infants are sensitive to transitional probability cues in unfamiliar natural language stimuli, and support the claim that statistical learning is sufficiently robust to support aspects of real‐world language acquisition. 相似文献
9.
Frustration is an emotional state produced by the surprising omission in quantity and/or quality of an appetitive reinforcer.
The aversive properties of stressors, such as electric shocks, produce responses similar to those elicited by a state of frustration.
In this set of three experiments, we assessed the effects of water immersion (WIM, in Experiment 1)—that is, a physical stressor—and
first (in Experiments 1 and 2) and second trials of a consummatory extinction (cE; i.e., a surprising reward omission; in
Experiment 3) on the sexual behavior of male rats, as compared with nonstressed animals. The results showed a sexual deficit
in the animals subjected to either WIM or cE, relative to control subjects, although these experimental conditions differed
in the component of the male sexual response that was affected. The present results accord with the fear = frustration hypothesis,
and with Amsel’s frustration theory. 相似文献
10.
Gary Natriello 《Learning Inquiry》2007,1(1):7-18
Extrapolating from current developments in the study of learning and imagining how learning might be shaped moving forward,
this article considers 12 trends concerning the future of learning. Learning will become more diverse, more contextual, less
discipline-bound, and less institutionally-bound. It will span professional and institutional sectors, and move beyond national
borders. It will move increasingly online and extend beyond humans to encompass machines and machine/human blends. It will
become more interactive, more distributed, and more biologically connected. Drawing on an understanding of these trends, new
roles for teachers and for educational institutions are developed. The result is that learning is likely to occur through
multiple discovery networks that blend research and teaching to address real world problems in environments supported by robust
software infrastructures. Multiple nested discovery networks will operate on a global scale and be negotiated by individual
learners sometimes guided by teachers.
Prediction is very difficult, especially about the future—Niels Bohr
The future is already here - it’s just unevenly distributed—William Gibson
The best way to predict the future is to invent it—Alan Kay 相似文献
11.
Models of associative learning differ in their predictions concerning the symmetry of generalization decrements. Whereas Pearce’s
(1994) configural model predicts the same response decrement after adding elements to and after removing elements from a previously
trained stimulus, elemental models, such as the replaced elements model and Harris’s (2006) model, anticipate more of a decrement
for removing than for adding elements. In three contingency learning experiments, we manipulated the motion and the spatial
arrangement of colored dots in order to induce configural or elemental processing by perceptual grouping. The results reliably
showed symmetrical decrements for the added and removed groups. The manipulations of the stimuli had no effect on stimulus processing. This is in line with Pearce’s configural model,
but it is at variance with the elemental models and previous studies. 相似文献
12.
Through a qualitative research study we developed a model of employment success based on the experiences of successful adults
with learning disabilities. This model may be particularly useful to students with learning disabilities in helping them experience
success both in school and beyond. We suggest that the components of the model—internal decisions comprising desire, goal
orientation, and reframing, and external manifestations or behaviors of persistence, goodness of fit, learned creativity,
and favorable social ecologies—can be systematically taught and then used. By focusing on what has worked for adults with
learning disabilities, we propose that the model taps into inherent strengths that can compensate for significant limitations
associated with learning disabilities. The model does not guarantee success, but it does equip students with learning disabilities
with a readiness to capitalize on opportunities that they might otherwise miss. 相似文献
13.
Data analysis requires subtle probability reasoning to answer questions like What is the chance of event A occurring, given that event B was observed? This generic question arises in discussions of many intriguing scientific questions such as What is the probability that an adolescent weighs between 120 and 140 pounds given that they are of average height? and What is the probability of (monetary) inflation exceeding 4% and housing price index below 110? To address such problems, learning some applied, theoretical or cross‐disciplinary probability concepts is necessary. Teaching such courses can be improved by utilizing modern information technology resources. Students' understanding of multivariate distributions, conditional probabilities, correlation and causation can be significantly strengthened by employing interactive web‐based science educational resources. Independent of the type of a probability course (e.g. majors, minors or service probability course, rigorous measure‐theoretic, applied or statistics course) student motivation, learning experiences and knowledge retention may be enhanced by blending modern technological tools within the classical conceptual pedagogical models. We have designed, implemented and disseminated a portable open‐source web‐application for teaching multivariate distributions, marginal, joint and conditional probabilities using the special case of bivariate Normal distribution. A real adolescent height and weight dataset is used to demonstrate the classroom utilization of the new web‐application to address problems of parameter estimation, univariate and multivariate inference. 相似文献
14.
Jeffrey Alan Greene Lara-Jeane Costa Kristin Dellinger 《Metacognition and Learning》2011,6(3):275-301
Researchers often use measures of the frequency of self-regulated learning (SRL; Zimmerman, American Educational Research Journal, 45(1), 166–183, 2000) processing as a predictor of learning gains. These frequency data, which are really counts of SRL processing events, are
often non-normally distributed, and the accurate analysis of these data requires the use of specialized statistical models.
In this study, we demonstrate how to implement and interpret count statistical models in path and latent profile analyses
to investigate the role of SRL as a mediator of the relation between pretest and posttest conceptual understanding. Our findings
from a sample of 170 college students using a computer to learn about the circulatory system show that SRL does mediate the
aforementioned relation, and that count models are a more accurate representation of SRL processing data than standard analysis
models based on ordinary least squares estimation. The results of our path analyses revealed which specific SRL processes
were related to learning, above and beyond the effect of prior knowledge. Our latent profile analysis revealed two groups
of participants, indicative of Brophy’s (2004) model of schematic and aschematic learners. We conclude with implications and future directions for basic and applied SRL
research. 相似文献
15.
Reed P 《Learning & behavior》2006,34(4):379-386
Three experiments were performed to examine the effect of response force on rats’ performance on various schedules of reinforcement.
Response force was manipulated by changing the weight of the lever in the operant chamber—a heavy lever for high response
force and a light lever for low response force. Using a within-subjects design, Experiment 1 replicated previous findings
that rats respond more quickly on variable ratio (VR) than on equivalent variable-interval-plus-linear-feedback (VI+) schedules.
Experiment 2 replicated this finding but also showed that the use of a smaller response force abolished the response rate
difference between the VR and VI+ schedules. Experiment 3 used a between-subjects design and showed a response rate difference
between the VR and VI+ schedules with a high response force but no response rate difference with a low response force. This
suggests that under conditions of low force, when the rats’ responding can continue at prolonged high rates, these subjects
show little difference in their response rates between VR and VI+ schedules. These data are similar to those found for human
subjects. 相似文献
16.
以广西3所市区初中学校七八九年级的560名学生为研究对象,考察初中生在统计学习过程中的学习动机、学习焦虑、自我效能感、自我概念对统计学习策略的影响,结果表明:(1)统计学习动机、统计自我概念和统计自我效能感对统计学习策略有显著正向影响;(2)统计学习动机、统计自我效能感对统计自我概念有显著正向影响;(3)统计学习焦虑对统计自我概念有显著负向影响.建议教师在统计与概率的教学过程中,务必采取措施让初中生维持较高的统计学习动机、减轻统计学习焦虑状态、提升统计学习效能感,以便于生成积极的统计自我概念,从而有效提升统计学习策略水平. 相似文献
17.
Towards a Framework for Attention Cueing in Instructional Animations: Guidelines for Research and Design 总被引：1，自引：0，他引：1
Björn B. de Koning Huib K. Tabbers Remy M. J. P. Rikers Fred Paas 《Educational Psychology Review》2009,21(2):113-140
This paper examines the transferability of successful cueing approaches from text and static visualization research to animations.
Theories of visual attention and learning as well as empirical evidence for the instructional effectiveness of attention cueing
are reviewed and, based on Mayer’s theory of multimedia learning, a framework was developed for classifying three functions
for cueing: (1) selection—cues guide attention to specific locations, (2) organization—cues emphasize structure, and (3) integration—cues
explicate relations between and within elements. The framework was used to structure the discussion of studies on cueing in
animations. It is concluded that attentional cues may facilitate the selection of information in animations and sometimes
improve learning, whereas organizational and relational cueing requires more consideration on how to enhance understanding.
Consequently, it is suggested to develop cues that work in animations rather than borrowing effective cues from static representations.
Guidelines for future research on attention cueing in animations are presented. 相似文献
18.
Two experiments used rats in a conditioned lick suppression preparation to investigate how the conditioned stimulus (CS)-duration
and partial-reinforcement effects (i.e., weakened responding due to conditioning with a CS of longer duration and presenting
nonreinforced CSs intermingled with CS—unconditioned stimulus [US] pairings, respectively) interact with overshadowing. Experiment
1 found that when overshadowing treatment was combined with either extended CS duration or partial reinforcement, the response
deficit was weaker than when either of these three treatments was administered alone. In Experiment 2, the generality of the
findings in Experiment 1 was investigated by replicating it with various US—US intervals. This time counteraction was observed
only when both the absolute duration of total CS exposure and the US—US interval were short. The results support neither the
view that the ratio between the total CS exposure and total time in the context determines the CS-duration and the partial-reinforcement
effects nor the view that these two effects arise from a loss of effectiveness of the excitatory CS—US association during
CS-alone exposures in partial reinforcement or early periods of CS exposure with long CSs. 相似文献
19.
Numerical competence has been studied in animals under a variety of conditions, but only a few experiments have reported animals’
ability to detect absolute number. Capaldi and Miller (1988) tested rats’ ability to detect absolute number by using biologically
important events—the number of reinforced runs followed by a nonreinforced run—and found that the rats ran significantly slower
on the nonreinforced run. In the present experiments, we used a similar procedure. Pigeons were given a sequence of trials
in which responding on the first three trials ended in reinforcement but responding on the fourth trial did not (RRRN). When
the response requirement on each trial was a single peck (Experiment 1), we found no significant increase in latency to peck
on the fourth trial. When the response requirement was increased to 10 pecks (Experiment 2), however, the time to complete
the peck requirement was significantly longer on the nonreinforced trial than on the reinforced trials. Tests for control
by time, number of responses, and amount of food consumed indicated that the pigeons were using primarily the number of reinforcements
obtained in each sequence as a cue for nonreinforcement. This procedure represents a sensitive and efficient method for studying
numerical competence in animals. 相似文献
20.
In three experiments, we examined the effect on the patterns of responding noted on fixed interval (FI) schedules of prior
exposure to a range of interval and ratio schedules. Rats leverpressed for food reinforcement on random ratio (RR), random
interval (RI), or variable interval (VI) schedules prior to transfer to FI schedules. In Experiment 1, prior exposure to an
RR schedule retarded the development of typical FI patterns of responding. Exposure to a yoked RI schedule produced even greater
retardation of typical FI performance. This effect was replicated in Experiment 2, using a within-subjects design. Rats responded
on a multiple RR-RI schedule prior to a multiple FI-FI schedule. Typical FI performance emerged more slowly in the component
previously associated with the RI than with that associated with the RR. In Experiment 3, exposure to an RR schedule retarded
the development of FI performance to a greater extent than did exposure to a VR schedule. The latter schedule was programmed
to allow the possibility that inhibitory control would develop after reinforcement. These results confirm that ratio schedules
independently result in the disruption of FI responding. This effect was not long lasting and cannot be used plausibly to
explain species differences in responding to FI schedules. However, it does suggest that temporal control—as manifested by
the transfer of inhibitory control from one schedule to another—could facilitate movement between interval schedules. 相似文献