The Reluctant Revolutionary     

ANTONY FLEW 《Philosophical Books》1990,31(3):148-149

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Philosophy and Public Policy     

ANTONY FLEW 《Philosophical Books》1981,22(4):232-234

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Philosophical Subjects: Essay Presented to P.F. Strawson.     

C.J.F. WILLIAMS 《Philosophical Books》1982,23(1):33-33

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THE WECHSLER SCALES: PARENTS AND (MALE) CHILDREN     

TREVOR H. WILLIAMS 《Journal of Educational Measurement》1975,12(2):119-128

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VALIDITY OF APPROXIMATION TECHNIQUES FOR DETECTING ITEM BIAS     

LORRIE A. SHEPARD  GREGORY CAMILLI  DAVID M. WILLIAMS 《Journal of Educational Measurement》1985,22(2):77-105

The purpose of this research was to recommend an item bias procedure when the number of minority examinees is too small to use preferred three-parameter IRT methods. The chi-square, Angoff delta-plot, andpseudo-IRT indices were compared with both real and simulated data. For the real test data a criterion of known bias had been established by cross-validated IRT-3 results. The findings from the Math Test and the simulated test were consistent. The pseudo-IRT approach was best (measured by both correlations and percent agreement) in delecting criterion bias. The chi-square was close in accuracy to the pseudo-IRT index. The Angoff delta-plot method was found to be inadequate on both heuristic and empirical grounds. In extreme cases it even identified items as biased against whites that were simulated to be biased against blacks. However, a modified Angoff index, where p-value differences were regressed on item point biserials (and the residualized values used as the index), was nearly as good as the chi-square in identifying known bias. A final caution was offered regarding the use of item bias techniques. The statistical flags should never be used mechanically to discard items; rather they should be used to inspect items for possible differences in meaning.  相似文献   

The influence of a 6.5% carbohydrate-electrolyte solution on performance of prolonged intermittent high-intensity running at 30°C     

JOHN MORRIS  MARY NEVILL  DYLAN THOMPSON  JASON COLLIE  CLYDE WILLIAMS 《Journal of sports sciences》2013,31(5):371-381

Nine male student games players consumed either flavoured water (0.1 g carbohydrate, Na⁺ 6 mmol · l^?1), a solution containing 6.5% carbohydrate-electrolytes (6.5 g carbohydrate, Na⁺ 21 mmol · l^?1) or a taste placebo (Na⁺ 2 mmol · l^?1) during an intermittent shuttle test performed on three separate occasions at an ambient temperature of 30°C (dry bulb). The test involved five 15-min sets of repeated cycles of walking and variable speed running, each separated by a 4-min rest (part A of the test), followed by 60 s run/60 s rest until exhaustion (part B of the test). The participants drank 6.5 ml · kg^?1 of fluid as a bolus just before exercise and thereafter 4.5 ml · kg^?1 during every exercise set and rest period (19 min). There was a trial order effect. The total distance completed by the participants was greater in trial 3 (8441 ± 873 m) than in trial 1 (6839 ± 512, P < 0.05). This represented a 19% improvement in exercise capacity. However, the trials were performed in a random counterbalanced order and the participants completed 8634 ± 653 m, 7786 ± 741 m and 7099 ± 647 m in the flavoured water (FW), placebo (P) and carbohydrate-electrolyte (CE) trials, respectively (P = 0.08). Sprint performance was not different between the trials but was impaired over time (FW vs P vs CE: set 1, 2.41 ± 0.02 vs 2.39 ± 0.03 vs 2.39 ± 0.03 s; end set, 2.46 ± 0.03 vs 2.47 ± 0.03 vs 2.47 ± 0.02 s; main

effect time, P < 0.01). The rate of rise in rectal temperature was greater in the carbohydrate-electrolyte trial (rise in rectal temperature/duration of trial, °C · h^?1; FW vs CE, P < 0.05; P vs CE, N.S.). Blood glucose concentrations were higher in the carbohydrate-electrolyte than in the other two trials (FW vs P vs CE: rest, 4.4 ± 0.1 vs 4.3 ± 0.1 vs 4.2 ± 0.1 mmol · l^?1; end of exercise, 5.4 ± 0.3 vs 6.4 ± 0.6 vs 7.2 ± 0.5 mmol · l^?1; main effect trial, P < 0.05; main effect time, P < 0.01). Plasma free fatty acid concentrations at the end of exercise were lower in the carbohydrate-electrolyte trial than in the other two trials (FW vs P vs CE: 0.57 ± 0.08 vs 0.53 ± 0.11 vs 0.29 ± 0.04 mmol · l^?1; interaction, P < 0.01). The correlation between the rate of rise in rectal temperature (°C · h^?1) and the distance completed was ?0.91, ?0.92 and ?0.96 in the flavoured water, placebo and carbohydrate-electrolyte conditions, respectively (P < 0.01). Heart rate, blood pressure, plasma ammonia, blood lactate, plasma volume and rate of perceived exertion were not different between the three fluid trials. Although drinking the carbohydrate-electrolyte solution induced greater metabolic changes than the flavoured water and placebo solutions, it is unlikely that in these unacclimated males carbohydrate availability was a limiting factor in the performance of intermittent running in hot environmental conditions.  相似文献   

Modelling home advantage in the Summer Olympic Games     

NJ BALMER  AM NEVILL  AM WILLIAMS 《Journal of sports sciences》2013,31(6):469-478

Home advantage in team games is well proven and the influence of the crowd upon officials' decisions has been identified as a plausible cause. The aim of this study was to assess the significance of home advantage for five event groups selected from the Summer Olympic Games between 1896 and 1996, and put home advantage in team games in context with other sports. The five event groups were athletics and weightlifting (predominantly objectively judged), boxing and gymnastics (predominantly subjectively judged) and team games (involving subjective decisions). The proportion of points won was analysed as a binomial response variable using generalized linear interactive modelling. Preliminary exploration of the data highlighted the need to control for the proportion of competitors entered and to split the analysis pre- and post-war. Highly significant home advantage was found in event groups that were either subjectively judged or rely on subjective decisions. In contrast, little or no home advantage (and even away advantage) was observed for the two objectively judged groups. Officiating system was vital to both the existence and extent of home advantage. Our findings suggest that crowd noise has a greater influence upon officials' decisions than players' performances, as events with greater officiating input enjoyed significantly greater home advantage.  相似文献   

Parallel Process in a Course on Counseling Supervision     

ANTONY WILLIAMS 《Counselor Education & Supervision》1987,26(4):245-254

The learning of supervision implies not only acquisition of formal knowledge but also changes in the learner. Because these changes cannot be completely specified at the outset, the way a supervisor learns must be through a mixture of experiential and didactic teaching. The dialectic between the “inner” and the “outer” learnings required for counselors to change their roles to becoming supervisors forms the substance of this article. Early in the course, the class was fascinated by the seeming inevitability of “parallel process” issues between supervisor, trainee, and client. In the second half of the year, the beginning supervisors took on a new group of trainees and learned the importance of having a developmental model to guide their work. The bias in the course as a whole was that all learning requires a change in relationship, that supervision needs to be understood developmentally, and that it is best to treat beginning supervisors and trainees as creative geniuses.  相似文献   

The Order There Is and the Order We Make.     

ANTONY FLEW 《Philosophical Books》1983,24(1):63-64

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The Nature of Disease     

ANTONY FLEW 《Philosophical Books》1988,29(4):228-229

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