Perceptual Access Reasoning (PAR) in Developing a Representational Theory of Mind     

William V. Fabricius  Christopher R. Gonzales  Annelise Pesch  Amy A. Weimer  John Pugliese  Kathleen Carroll  Rebecca R. Bolnick  Anne S. Kupfer  Nancy Eisenberg  Tracy L. Spinrad 《Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development》2021,86(3):7-154

An important part of children's social and cognitive development is their understanding that people are psychological beings with internal, mental states including desire, intention, perception, and belief. A full understanding of people as psychological beings requires a representational theory of mind (ToM), which is an understanding that mental states can faithfully represent reality, or misrepresent reality. For the last 35 years, researchers have relied on false-belief tasks as the gold standard to test children's understanding that beliefs can misrepresent reality. In false-belief tasks, children are asked to reason about the behavior of agents who have false beliefs about situations. Although a large body of evidence indicates that most children pass false-belief tasks by the end of the preschool years, the evidence we present in this monograph suggests that most children do not understand false beliefs or, surprisingly, even true beliefs until middle childhood. We argue that young children pass false-belief tasks without understanding false beliefs by using perceptual access reasoning (PAR). With PAR, children understand that seeing leads to knowing in the moment, but not that knowing also arises from thinking or persists as memory and belief after the situation changes. By the same token, PAR leads children to fail true-belief tasks. PAR theory can account for performance on other traditional tests of representational ToM and related tasks, and can account for the factors that have been found to correlate with or affect both true- and false-belief performance. The theory provides a new laboratory measure which we label the belief understanding scale (BUS). This scale can distinguish between a child who is operating with PAR versus a child who is understanding beliefs. This scale provides a method needed to allow the study of the development of representational ToM. In this monograph, we report the outcome of the tests that we have conducted of predictions generated by PAR theory. The findings demonstrated signature PAR limitations in reasoning about the mind during the ages when children are hypothesized to be using PAR. In Chapter II, secondary analyses of the published true-belief literature revealed that children failed several types of true-belief tasks. Chapters III through IX describe new empirical data collected across multiple studies between 2003 and 2014 from 580 children aged 4–7 years, as well as from a small sample of 14 adults. Participants were recruited from the Phoenix, Arizona metropolitan area. All participants were native English-speakers. Children were recruited from university-sponsored and community preschools and daycare centers, and from hospital maternity wards. Adults were university students who participated to partially fulfill course requirements for research participation. Sociometric data were collected only in Chapter IX, and are fully reported there. In Chapter III, minor alterations in task procedures produced wide variations in children's performance in 3-option false-belief tasks. In Chapter IV, we report findings which show that the developmental lag between children's understanding ignorance and understanding false belief is longer than the lag reported in previous studies. In Chapter V, children did not distinguish between agents who have false beliefs versus agents who have no beliefs. In Chapter VI, findings showed that children found it no easier to reason about true beliefs than to reason about false beliefs. In Chapter VII, when children were asked to justify their correct answers in false-belief tasks, they did not reference agents’ false beliefs. Similarly, in Chapter VIII, when children were asked to explain agents’ actions in false-belief tasks, they did not reference agents’ false beliefs. In Chapter IX, children who were identified as using PAR differed from children who understood beliefs along three dimensions—in levels of social development, inhibitory control, and kindergarten adjustment. Although the findings need replication and additional studies of alternative interpretations, the collection of results reported in this monograph challenges the prevailing view that representational ToM is in place by the end of the preschool years. Furthermore, the pattern of findings is consistent with the proposal that PAR is the developmental precursor of representational ToM. The current findings also raise questions about claims that infants and toddlers demonstrate ToM-related abilities, and that representational ToM is innate.  相似文献   

Associations between different forms of peer victimization and school absences: The moderating role of teacher attachment and perceived school safety     

Anne Williford  Paula Fite  Kathleen Diaz  Mehar Singh 《Psychology in the schools》2021,58(1):185-202

Given the significant negative impacts of peer victimization on youth development, studies have sought to understand what buffers against these consequences. To that end, the present study examined whether teacher attachment and perceptions of school safety moderated the associations between different forms of victimization and school absences over the course of an academic year among a sample of 272 high school students. Findings indicated that teacher attachment moderated the associations between relational and cyber victimization and absences, while perceived school safety moderated associations between relational victimization and absences. However, findings pertaining to cyber victimization were not as anticipated. Implications for prevention and intervention efforts in high schools are discussed.  相似文献   

The role of school-based research champions in a school–university partnership     

Katharine Burn  Robin Conway  Anne Edwards  Eluned Harries 《British Educational Research Journal》2021,47(3):616-633

The value of teachers’ engagement in and with research is long recognised and it is acknowledged that school–university research partnerships are one way of enabling such engagement. But we know little about how research-based knowledge is negotiated into school practices. Here we draw on data from nine ‘research champions’, who are teachers in schools which are part of the Oxford Education Deanery, a research partnership with a university department. Taking a cultural/historical approach, the study examined the strategic intentions and actions in the activities of the champions as they negotiated research-based knowledge into their schools. Data comprised 59 completed templates that described what they did and why. Findings revealed differences between those with close links with senior leaders—who could take a whole-school approach—and those whose reach was restricted by their position in school practices. Nonetheless, all the champions carefully selected and targeted research in ways that reflected their knowledge of local contexts. The findings point to the need to incorporate the champion role into school systems and for universities to value the role as they develop their own research agenda.  相似文献   

Setting the Standard     

Anne J. Kox 《Metascience》2005,14(3):481-483

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Telling Our Story: A Case Study of a Collaborative Departmental Blog at Syracuse University Libraries     

Anne E. Rauh 《New Review of Academic Librarianship》2016,22(2-3):315-324

ABSTRACT

This case study will take readers through the planning and publication process of a collaborative departmental library blog at Syracuse University, which is a large private, non-profit research intensive university located in central New York State. It will provide an overview of the history of the project and the mission of the blog. It will describe the technical aspects, developing a publication schedule, and the editorial responsibilities of maintaining the blog. The impact of the blog is documented. The blog has raised awareness of the librarians' expertise and this is explored alongside how posts have contributed to a number of wider conversations in librarianship.  相似文献   

Towards becoming a reflective practitioner: What to know and where to find it     

Anne Byrne  Dr. Campbell J. McRobbie 《Research in Science Education》1993,23(1):15-23

Preparing student teachers to teach thoughtfully and to consider carefully the consequences of their work involves creating opportunities for these beginning teachers to learn the skills and attitudes required for reflective practive. The case study described here explores one model of developing reflective practice and the congruent role that the source and use of knowledge of good teaching practice has in the process of developing the reflective practices of a post-graduate pre-service science teacher. Of particular interest are the facilitators and barriers she sees as affecting this development. Specializations: Science education, science teacher education Specializations: science education, science teacher education, conceptual change, learning environments, science reasoning.  相似文献   

Storying Joanne, 1 an undergraduate mathematician     

Hilary Povey  Corinne Angier  Michelle Clarke 《Gender and education》2006,18(5):459-471

In this article two different accounts are juxtaposed. In one, we use a variety of texts to narrate the story of Joanne, a woman undergraduate student of mathematics. Like many of our mature students Joanne came to the university with a ‘non‐traditional’ academic background. We describe how Joanne developed as a learner of mathematics and connect this to our ways of working in the undergraduate mathematics classroom. We believe that our pedagogy is unusual outside (some) school classrooms and suggest it allows our students to develop positive ‘disciplinary relationships’. In the other, we grapple with the issues raised by telling other people’s stories especially when we are also characters within it. Our intention has been that, in interweaving these two threads, each helps us understand more about the other.  相似文献   

Administrative problems associated with regionalization     

Anne Stack 《Distance Education》1990,11(1):92-115

This paper focusses on the administrative problems related to the decision to regionalize the British Columbia Correspondence and Distance Learning Branch. The first pan of the paper provides background information about how the concept of regionalization developed both within the Branch and as a result of political pressures. The next part discusses the proposed changes in the administrative structure of the Branch once the regionalization process has been completed. This is followed by consideration of the problems occurring during the first transitional year. Particular attention is paid to the effects the changes are having on relationships between staff and management. Finally, in looking to the future, anticipated problems and changes after regionalization has been completed are considered.  相似文献   

Engaging with ‘English in a Historical Perspective’ Through Analysing Texts     

Mark Wyatt  Dorothy Constantino  Corinne Cox  Kristy Gilkes  Serena Thompson  Rachael Tiller 《Changing English: An International Journal of English Teaching》2016,23(1):22-41

Though there is little in the literature on the teaching of the history of English, criticism of textbooks which over-simplify the story as the rise of the standard variety has been more vocal of late. Meanwhile, some academics have argued for focusing teaching on the analysis of texts. This article reports on a unit/module taught at a British university that makes the analysis of texts central to teaching and assessment. It sets out to demonstrate what can be learned from approaching the subject in this way by presenting composite textual analyses created by the first-named author drawing on the work of his co-authors (five of his final-year undergraduate students). This was for two assignments, one focusing on an Early Modern English text and the other a more contemporary piece. A discussion highlights the benefits of making the analysis of texts central to the unit, and considers practical applications for teachers of the subject in other parts of the world.  相似文献   

Constructing and understanding of place value in numerical notation     

Anne Sinclair  Anne Garin  Chantal Tièche-Christinat 《European Journal of Psychology of Education - EJPE》1992,7(3):191-207

The purpose of this study was to investigate how children aged five to nine gradually build up an understanding of the characteristics of place-value inherent in the written number system. The task consisted in presenting collections of chips, asking children to produce the corresponding two-digit numerals, and then questioning them in a structured clinical interview about the possible numerical meaning (in terms of correspondence to a number of chips) of each of the digits in the numeral. Results show that the idea that parts of the notation must correspond to mutually exclusive parts of the collection is but slowly built up, and that subsequently it is fleshed out by the use of knowledge concerning oral numeration_— written numeration correspondences. Intuitions concerning «groups of ten» arise later. A fair proportion of eight-year-olds and all nine-years-olds saw the two-digits as corresponding to, on the one hand, a number of units, and on the other, a number of groups of units.  相似文献