Counterfactual Reasoning: Developing a Sense of "Nearest Possible World"     

Eva Rafetseder  Renate Cristi-Vargas  Josef Perner 《Child development》2010,81(1):376-389

This study investigated at what point in development 3- to 6-year-old children begin to demonstrate counterfactual reasoning by controlling for fortuitously correct answers that result from basic conditional reasoning. Basic conditional reasoning occurs when one applies typical regularities (such as "If 'whenever' it doesn't rain the street is dry") to counterfactual questions (such as "If it had not rained, would the street be wet or dry?") without regard to actual events (e.g., if street cleaners had just been washing the street). In counterfactual reasoning , however, the conditional reasoning must be constrained by actual events (according to the "nearest possible world"). In situations when counterfactual reasoning and basic conditional reasoning would yield the same answers, even the youngest children gave mostly correct answers. However, tasks in which the 2 reasoning strategies resulted in different answers proved unusually difficult even for the older children.  相似文献   

Want that is understood well before say that,think that,and false belief: a test of de Villiers's linguistic determinism on German-speaking children     

Perner J  Sprung M  Zauner P  Haider H 《Child development》2003,74(1):179-188

Two experiments with 79 monolingual German speaking children between 2.5 and 4.5 years showed a consistent developmental gap between children's memory/inference of what someone wanted and what someone wrongly said or thought. For instance, when John is still playing and mother says, "John should be going to bed," more than 70% answered correctly that mother wanted John to go to bed. However, when mother said, "John is going to bed," about 70% answered wrongly that she thought/said that he was still playing. Correct answers emerged with the mastery of the false-belief task. In German, want sentences (about something to happen) obligatorily take the same grammatical that complement as say or think sentences. Therefore, the observed gap constrains de Villier's (1995) linguistic determinism, which claims that acquisition of the necessary grammatical structures for talking about the mind drives children's ability to think about the mind.  相似文献   

关于中国古代体育起源的两个问题     

BENNY JOSEF PEISER  李辉 《山东体育学院学报》1997,(2)

1.对以民间传说与神话资料作为中国古代体育起源的依据提出了质疑,认为这种研究在把握资料上缺乏理性分析,这些资料只能作为传说来看待。2.对中国体育史学家提出的人类原始的体育活动方式可以追溯到5万年到10万年甚至50万年以前提出不同意见。认为岩画不能作为中国古代体育最早的考古学证据,考古学家几乎没有发现任何证据证明史前时代的中国有体育存在。3.甲骨文不能作为体育史学提供证据,它所提供的一些活动不具备竞技的特点,不能纳入体育或竞技格斗的范畴。从考古学的观点来看,真正的体育只能追溯到后周时代。  相似文献   

Supervised sentiment analysis in Czech social media     

Ivan Habernal  Tomáš Ptáček  Josef Steinberger 《Information processing & management》2014

This article describes in-depth research on machine learning methods for sentiment analysis of Czech social media. Whereas in English, Chinese, or Spanish this field has a long history and evaluation datasets for various domains are widely available, in the case of the Czech language no systematic research has yet been conducted. We tackle this issue and establish a common ground for further research by providing a large human-annotated Czech social media corpus. Furthermore, we evaluate state-of-the-art supervised machine learning methods for sentiment analysis. We explore different pre-processing techniques and employ various features and classifiers. We also experiment with five different feature selection algorithms and investigate the influence of named entity recognition and preprocessing on sentiment classification performance. Moreover, in addition to our newly created social media dataset, we also report results for other popular domains, such as movie and product reviews. We believe that this article will not only extend the current sentiment analysis research to another family of languages, but will also encourage competition, potentially leading to the production of high-end commercial solutions.  相似文献