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1.
Medical schools in the United States continue to undergo curricular change, reorganization, and reformation as more schools transition to an integrated curriculum. Anatomy educators must find novel approaches to teach in a way that will bridge multiple disciplines. The cadaveric extraction of the central nervous system (CNS) provides an opportunity to bridge gross anatomy, neuroanatomy, and clinical neurology. In this dissection, the brain, brainstem, spinal cord, cauda equina, optic nerve/tract, and eyes are removed in one piece so that the entire CNS and its gateway to the periphery through the spinal roots can be appreciated. However, this dissection is rarely, if ever, performed likely due to time constraints, perceived difficulty, and lack of instructions. The goals of this project were (i) to provide a comprehensive, step‐by‐step guide for an en bloc CNS extraction and (ii) to determine effective strategies to implement this dissection/prosection within modern curricula. Optimal dissection methods were determined after comparison of various approaches/tools, which reduced dissection time from approximately 10 to 4 hours. The CNS prosections were piloted in small group sessions with two types of learners in two different settings: graduate students studied wet CNS prosections within the dissection laboratory and medical students used plastinated CNS prosections to review clinical neuroanatomy and solve lesion localization cases during their neurology clerkship. In both cases, the CNS was highly rated as a teaching tool and 98% recommended it for future students. Notably, 90% of medical students surveyed suggested that the CNS prosection be introduced prior to clinical rotations. Anat Sci Educ 11: 185–195. © 2017 American Association of Anatomists.  相似文献   

2.
The role of human dissection in modern medical curricula has been a topic of intense debate. In part, this is because dissection can be time-consuming and curricular hours are being monitored more carefully. This has led some to question the efficacy and importance of dissection as a teaching method. While this topic has received considerable attention in the literature, the question of how dissection impacts learning has been difficult to evaluate in a real-world, high-stakes setting since participation in dissection is often one of many variables. In this study, this challenge was overcome due to a change in the curriculum of a Special Master Program (SMP) that permitted a comparison between two years of students that learned anatomy using prosection only and two years of students that participated in dissection laboratories. Since each class of SMP students took courses in the medical school, and the medical school anatomy curriculum was constant, medical student performance served as a control throughout the study period. Results demonstrate that SMP students who learned through prosection had lower performance on anatomy practical and written examinations compared to medical students. When the SMP program changed and students started participating in dissection, there were measurable improvements in both practical and written examinations. These findings provide evidence of dissection’s role in learning and applying anatomy knowledge both within and outside the gross anatomy laboratory.  相似文献   

3.
Changes in medical education have affected both curriculum design and delivery. Many medical schools now use integrated curricula and a systemic approach, with reduced hours of anatomy teaching. While learning anatomy via dissection is invaluable in educational, professional, and personal development, it is time intensive and supports a regional approach to learning anatomy; the use of prosections has replaced dissection as the main teaching method in many medical schools. In our graduate‐entry medical degree, we use an integrated curriculum, with prosections to teach anatomy systemically. However, to not exclude dissection completely, and to expose students to its additional and unique benefits, we implemented a short “Dissection Experience” at the beginning of Year 2. Students attended three two‐hour anatomy sessions and participated in dissection of the clinically relevant areas of the cubital fossa, femoral triangle, and infraclavicular region. This activity was voluntary and we retrospectively surveyed all students to ascertain factors influencing their decision of whether to participate in this activity, and to obtain feedback from those students who did participate. The main reasons students did not participate were previous dissection experience and time constraints. The reasons most strongly affecting students' decisions to participate related to experience (lack of previous or new) and new skill. Students' responses as to the most beneficial component of the dissection experience were based around practical skills, anatomical education, the learning process, and the body donors. We report here on the benefits and practicalities of including a short dissection experience in a systemic, prosection‐based anatomy course. Anat Sci Educ 6: 225–231. © 2013 American Association of Anatomists.  相似文献   

4.
Near-peer teaching is an educational format which utilizes tutors who are more advanced in a curriculum's content to supervise students' activities and to act as instructors in laboratory settings. This format is often used in anatomy laboratory courses. The goal of the present study is to describe the design and implementation of near-peer teaching in an anatomy course and to evaluate students' perceptions of the program. A total of 700 students were registered for this anatomy course which employed near-peer instructors. Of enrolled students, 558 (79.7%) agreed to participate in this study. In general, the practical section (e.g., the clinical hour, image-based anatomy session, and gross anatomy laboratory) of the course was viewed more favorably compared to the theory section (54.8%, n = 306), with dissection and prosection in the laboratory rated as the most valued experiences (34.9%, n = 195). Near-peer teaching is a viable option that satisfies the demands of modern curricula using small groups. This format stimulates learning within courses that have large numbers of students and low faculty-to-student ratios.  相似文献   

5.
Cadaveric prosections are effective learning tools in anatomy education. They range from a fully dissected, sometimes plastinated, complete cadaver (in situ prosections), to a single, carefully dissected structure detached from a cadaver (ex situ prosections). While most research has focused on the advantages and disadvantages of dissection versus prosection, limited information is available on the instructional efficacy of different prosection types. This contribution explored potential differences between in situ and ex situ prosections regarding the ability of undergraduate students to identify anatomical structures. To determine if students were able to recognize the same anatomical structure on both in situ and ex situ prosections, or on either one individually, six structures were tagged on both prosection types as part of three course summative examinations. The majority of students (61%–68%) fell into one of the two categories: those that recognized or failed to recognize the same structure on both in situ and ex situ prosections. The percentage of students who recognized a selected structure on only one type of prosection was small (1.6%–31.6%), but skewed in favor of ex situ prosections (P ≤ 0.01). These results suggest that overall students' identification ability was due to knowledge differences, not the spatial or contextual challenges posed by each type of prosection. They also suggest that the relative difficulty of either prosection type depends on the nature of the anatomical structure. Thus, one type of prosection might be more appropriate for teaching some structures, and therefore the use of both types is recommended.  相似文献   

6.
The University of California at Davis School of Medicine offers a prematriculation program to nontraditional students. As part of the program, students take a 7‐day course on the gross anatomy of the upper limb that concludes with a written examination and a practical examination based on prosections. Here, the performance of students who took the course from 2002 to 2004 (n = 48) is compared with their performance in the medical gross anatomy course as well as their performance on Step 1 of the United States Medical Licensing Examination (USMLE). Both rank in the prematriculation program's anatomy course and the score on the examination were correlated (significant at the 0.01 level) with performance on the medical gross anatomy midterm and final examinations, the overall final grade, and class rank. Performance in the prematriculation anatomy course was also correlated with the score on Step 1 of the USMLE (rank significant at the 0.02 level; examination score, significant at the 0.05 level). Students who took the prematriculation course who eventually withdrew, were dismissed for academic reasons, or who failed the first attempt at the Step 1 of the licensing exam (n = 5) had a significantly lower score (77.6 ± 11.1; P < 0.05) on the prematriculation examination than did successful prematriculation students (86.2 ± 7.9). Thus, a gross anatomy examination following a short prematriculation course can be a predictor not only of medical student performance in anatomy, but also of performance on a standardized licensing examination. Anat Sci Ed 1:224–227, 2008. © 2008 American Association of Anatomists.  相似文献   

7.
Curricular changes continue at United States medical schools and directors of gross anatomy, microscopic anatomy, neuroscience/neuroanatomy, and embryology courses continue to adjust and modify their offerings. Developing and supplying data related to current trends in anatomical sciences education is important if informed decisions are going to be made in a time of curricular and course revision. Thus, a survey was sent to course directors during the 2012–2013 academic years to gather information on total course hours, lecture and laboratory hours, the type of laboratory experiences, testing and competency evaluation, and the type of curricular approach used at their institution. The data gathered were compared to information obtained from previous surveys and conclusions reached were that only small or no change was observed in total course, lecture and laboratory hours in all four courses; more gross anatomy courses were part of an integrated curriculum since the previous survey; virtual microscopy with and without microscopes was the primary laboratory activity in microscopic anatomy courses; and neuroscience/neuroanatomy and embryology courses were unchanged. Anat Sci Educ 7: 321–325. © 2014 American Association of Anatomists.  相似文献   

8.
There are few graduate programs available for pursuing a doctorate in anatomy where students gain specific training in gross anatomy dissection and the responsibilities of a medical educator. In light of this fact, the University of Kentucky created a Graduate Certificate in Anatomical Sciences Instruction in 2006. This 12‐credit hour curriculum includes detailed training in gross anatomy and/or neuroscience courses, practicum experiences, a seminar class in pedagogical literature, and a course in educational strategies for the anatomical sciences. The award of certificate completion affirms that the candidate has demonstrated faculty‐supervised proficiency in anatomy dissection, instruction in anatomy topics, and teaching strategies for anatomy. Seventeen graduate students have earned the certificate since its inception; nine students accepted teaching positions in anatomy following their graduate training and currently nine certificate graduates have assistant (six) or associate (three) professor positions in academia. In 2016, an anonymous survey including Likert‐style and open‐ended questions was emailed to all certificate graduates. Graduates favorably responded (each question averaged 4.4 or greater out of 5) that the certificate increased their awareness of teaching‐faculty responsibilities, adequately prepared them for teaching‐related duties, and positively contributed toward their first employment. Graduates indicated that the lecturing and dissection experience, awareness of faculty responsibilities, and job preparation (e.g., teaching philosophy development) were the most helpful aspects of the certificate. These results indicate that the Graduate Certificate in Anatomical Sciences Instruction is viewed by its graduates and their employers as a valuable teaching credential that can be attained alongside a basic science degree. Anat Sci Educ 11: 516–524. © 2018 American Association of Anatomists.  相似文献   

9.
To improve student preparedness for anatomy laboratory dissection, the dental gross anatomy laboratory was transformed using flipped classroom pedagogy. Instead of spending class time explaining the procedures and anatomical structures for each laboratory, students were provided online materials to prepare for laboratory on their own. Eliminating in‐class preparation provided the opportunity to end each period with integrative group activities that connected laboratory and lecture material and explored clinical correlations. Materials provided for prelaboratory preparation included: custom‐made, three‐dimensional (3D) anatomy videos, abbreviated dissection instructions, key atlas figures, and dissection videos. Data from three years of the course (n = 241 students) allowed for analysis of students' preferences for these materials and detailed tracking of usage of 3D anatomy videos. Students reported spending an average of 27:22 (±17:56) minutes preparing for laboratory, similar to the 30 minutes previously allocated for in‐class dissection preparation. The 3D anatomy videos and key atlas figures were rated the most helpful resources. Scores on laboratory examinations were compared for the three years before the curriculum change (2011–2013; n = 242) and three years after (2014–2016; n = 241). There was no change in average grades on the first and second laboratory examinations. However, on the final semi‐cumulative laboratory examination, scores were significantly higher in the post‐flip classes (P = 0.04). These results demonstrate an effective model for applying flipped classroom pedagogy to the gross anatomy laboratory and illustrate a meaningful role for 3D anatomy visualizations in a dissection‐based course. Anat Sci Educ 11: 385–396. © 2017 American Association of Anatomists.  相似文献   

10.
The debate surrounding the use of cadavers in teaching anatomy has focused almost exclusively on the pedagogic role of cadaver dissection in medical education. The aim of this study was to explore the wider aspects of a body bequest program for teaching and research into gross anatomy in a University setting. A retrospective audit was undertaken on body donation and the use of cadaver specimens for teaching and research at our institution between 1876 and 2009. The body bequest program, first established in 1943, now receives more than 40 donations per year. In addition to the medical course, nine other University degrees and courses currently use cadaver specimens for gross anatomy; four of these are research degrees and the remainder undergraduate degrees and courses. The use of cadaver specimens by non‐University groups has also increased, particularly during the past decade, such that there are now 16 different groups using cadaver specimens for instructional courses; most of these are professional medical courses. The use of cadavers for both research and teaching may encourage a more evidence‐based approach to clinical anatomy. This unique audit, spanning more than a century of anatomy education within a single University Medical School, highlights the utility of a robust body bequest program and the wide range of students and health professionals who interact with this precious resource. Anat Sci Educ 2:234–237, 2009 © 2009 American Association of Anatomists.  相似文献   

11.
Checklists have been widely used in the aviation industry ever since aircraft operations became more complex than any single pilot could reasonably remember. More recently, checklists have found their way into medicine, where cognitive function can be compromised by stress and fatigue. The use of checklists in medical education has rarely been reported, especially in the basic sciences. We explored whether the use of a checklist in the gross anatomy laboratory would improve learning outcomes, dissection quality, and students' satisfaction in the first-year Human Structure didactic block at Mayo Medical School. During the second half of a seven-week anatomy course, dissection teams were each day given a hardcopy checklist of the structures to be identified during that day's dissection. The first half of the course was considered the control, as students did not receive any checklists to utilize during dissection. The measured outcomes were scored on four practice practical examinations and four dissection quality assessments, two each from the first half (control) and second half of the course. A student satisfaction survey was distributed at the end of the course. Examination and dissection scores were analyzed for correlations between practice practical examination score and checklist use. Our data suggest that a daily hardcopy list of anatomical structures for active use in the gross anatomy laboratory increases practice practical examination scores and dissection quality. Students recommend the use of these checklists in future anatomy courses.  相似文献   

12.
Medical schools are increasingly integrating professionalism training into their gross anatomy courses, teaching ethical behavior and humanistic attitudes through the dissection experience. However, many schools continue to take a traditional, technical approach to anatomical education while teaching professionalism in separate courses. This interview-based study explored how students viewed the body donor and the professional lessons they learned through dissection at one such medical school. All students oscillated involuntarily between seeing the cadaver as a specimen for learning and seeing the cadaver as a person, with some students intentionally cultivating one of these ways of seeing over the other. These views shaped students’ emotional and moral responses to the experiences of dissection. The “specimen” view facilitated a technical, detached approach to dissection, while the “person” view made students engage emotionally. Further, students who intentionally cultivated a “specimen” view generally felt less moral distress about dissection than students who intentionally cultivated a “person” view. The concept of respect gave students permission to perform dissections, but “person-minded” students developed more complex rules around what constituted respectful behavior. Both groups of students connected the gross anatomy experience to their professional development, but in different ways. “Specimen-minded” students intentionally objectified the body to learn the emotional control physicians need, while “person-minded” students humanized the body donor to promote the emotional engagement required of physicians. These findings support efforts to integrate professionalism teaching into gross anatomy courses, particularly content, addressing the balance between professional detachment and concern.  相似文献   

13.
Restrictive laboratory scheduling, an increasing number of human cadaver‐based anatomy courses and a reduction in the curricular time allotted to anatomy courses have created problems with cadaver laboratory access at the University of New England. This article describes a combination of anatomy testing and grading strategies to allow “at risk” (borderline failing) students an opportunity to remediate their lowest set of examination scores and pass their anatomy course. An alternative electronic practical examination for these students provided flexibility in laboratory scheduling, thereby increasing laboratory access for other students taking concurrent courses. Specifically, the electronic examinations allowed for a reduction in the amount of time the cadaver laboratory is locked down for examination purposes. Masters‐level occupational therapy (MOT) students, physician assistant students (MPA), and doctoral level physical therapy (DPT) students participated in a prosection‐based human cadaver laboratory and take cadaver‐based practical examinations as part of their anatomy course. Students who were not performing at a passing level for their curriculum (69.5% for MOT and MPA, 79.5% for DPT) were given an opportunity to remediate their lowest set of multiple choice and practical examinations using the previous year's multiple choice examination and a new electronic practical examination. When the original cadaver‐based practical and multiple choice examination scores were replaced with the remedial electronic practical examination and remedial multiple choice examination scores, 75% (24/32) of these students were able to successfully remediate their academic deficiencies and pass their anatomy course. Anat Sci Educ 3:46–49, 2010. © 2009 American Association of Anatomists.  相似文献   

14.
Dissection videos are commonly utilized in gross anatomy courses; however, the actual usage of such videos, as well as the academic impact of student use of these videos, is largely unknown. Understanding how dissection videos impact learning is important in making curricular decisions. In this study, 22 dissection videos were created to review structures identified in laboratory sessions throughout the Organ Systems 1 (OS1), 2 (OS2), and 3 (OS3) courses. Dissection videos were provided to 201 first-year medical students, and viewing data were recorded. Demographic data for age and gender identity were also collected from students. Overall, there was a significant decrease in total views (P = 0.001), the number of students who pressed play (P < 0.001), and the number of students who viewed ≥ 90% of the total length of videos (P < 0.001) from OS1 to OS3. The total adjusted time spent viewing videos was not significantly different between individual OS courses. There were some instances where significant differences existed in examination performance between those who did and did not view videos, and by time spent viewing videos. There were no significant differences in time spent viewing videos by gender. Together these data suggest that students may utilize dissection videos more at the beginning of a dissection course, although they remain an important resource throughout the year for a subset of students.  相似文献   

15.
Human anatomy education often utilizes the essential practices of cadaver dissection and examination of prosected specimens. However, these exposures to human cadavers and confronting death can be stressful and anxiety‐inducing for students. This study aims to understand the attitudes, reactions, fears, and states of anxiety that speech therapy students experience in the dissection room. To that end, a before‐and‐after cross‐sectional analysis was conducted with speech therapy students undertaking a dissection course for the first time. An anonymous questionnaire was administered before and after the exercise to understand students' feelings and emotions. State‐Trait Anxiety Inventory questionnaires (STAI‐S and STAI‐T) were used to evaluate anxiety levels. The results of the study revealed that baseline anxiety levels measured using the STAI‐T remained stable and unchanged during the dissection room experience (P > 0.05). Levels of emotional anxiety measured using the STAI‐S decreased, from 15.3 to 11.1 points (P < 0.05). In the initial phase of the study, before any contact with the dissection room environment, 17% of students experienced anxiety, and this rate remained unchanged by end of the session (P > 0.05). A total of 63.4% of students described having thoughts about life and death. After the session, 100% of students recommended the dissection exercise, giving it a mean score of 9.1/10 points. Anatomy is an important subject for students in the health sciences, and dissection and prosection exercises frequently involve a series of uncomfortable and stressful experiences. Experiences in the dissection room may challenge some students' emotional equilibria. However, students consider the exercise to be very useful in their education and recommend it. Anat Sci Educ 10: 487–494. © 2017 American Association of Anatomists.  相似文献   

16.
As human cadavers are widely used in basic sciences, medical education, and other training and research venues, there is a real need for experts trained in anatomy and dissection. This article describes a program that gives individuals interested in clinical and basic sciences practical experience working with cadavers. Participants are selected through an open application process and attend sessions focused on anatomical terminology, gross anatomy and radiography, and some of the educational applications of human cadavers. Dissection skills are honed during an intensive, two‐day cadaver dissection and orthopedic workshop. Participants communicate the knowledge they gain through table‐side discussions, reflect upon the experience during a memorial service, and submit written program evaluations. Additionally, the dissection and preparation of cadaveric materials accomplished in this course are used in the medical school gross anatomy course during the next academic year. From 2004 through 2008, the annual number of applicants increased from 40 to 167, and the number of participants increased from 25 to 43 per year. Program participants have represented diverse ethnic, educational, and professional backgrounds. Feedback from participants has been remarkably positive, including comments on the large amount of learning that takes place during the sessions, the positive impact the program has had on career choice, and the desire for program expansion. This program, which could be replicated at other institutions, teaches anatomy, prepares cadaveric prosections for teaching and training others, and encourages participants to pursue careers in anatomical and biomedical sciences. Anat Sci Educ 3: 77–82, 2010. © 2010 American Association of Anatomists.  相似文献   

17.
Early exposure to radiological cross-section images during introductory anatomy and dissection courses increases students’ understanding of both anatomy and radiology. Novel technologies such as augmented reality (AR) offer unique advantages for an interactive and hands-on integration with the student at the center of the learning experience. In this article, the benefits of a previously proposed AR Magic Mirror system are compared to the Anatomage, a virtual dissection table as a system for combined anatomy and radiology teaching during a two-semester gross anatomy course with 749 first-year medical students, as well as a follow-up elective course with 72 students. During the former, students worked with both systems in dedicated tutorial sessions which accompanied the anatomy lectures and provided survey-based feedback. In the elective course, participants were assigned to three groups and underwent a self-directed learning session using either Anatomage, Magic Mirror, or traditional radiology atlases. A pre- and posttest design with multiple choice questions revealed significant improvements in test scores between the two tests for both the Magic Mirror and the group using radiology atlases, while no significant differences in test scores were recorded for the Anatomage group. Furthermore, especially students with low mental rotation test (MRT) scores benefited from the Magic Mirror and Anatomage and achieved significantly higher posttest scores compared to students with a low MRT score in the theory group. Overall, the results provide supporting evidence that the Magic Mirror system achieves comparable results in terms of learning outcome to established anatomy learning tools such as Anatomage and radiology atlases.  相似文献   

18.
Anatomy is an important component in the vertical integration of basic science and clinical practice. Two common pedagogies are cadaveric dissection and examination of prosected specimens. Comparative studies mostly evaluate their immediate effectiveness. A randomized controlled trial design was employed to compare both the immediate and long-term effectiveness of dissection and prosection. Eighty third-year medical students undergoing their surgical rotation from the Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine were randomized into two groups: dissection and prosection. Each participated in a one-day hands-on course following a similar outline that demonstrated surgical anatomy in the context of its clinical relevance. A pre-course test was conducted to establish baseline knowledge. A post-course test was conducted immediately after and at a one-year interval to evaluate learner outcome and knowledge retention. A post-course survey was conducted to assess participant perception. Thirty-nine and thirty-eight participants for the dissection and prosection groups, respectively, were included for analysis. There was no significant difference between mean pre-course test scores between the dissection and prosection groups [12.6 (3.47) vs. 12.7 (3.16), P > 0.05]. Both the mean immediate [27.9 (4.30) vs. 24.9 (4.25), P < 0.05] and 1 year [23.9 (4.15) vs. 19.9 (4.05), P < 0.05] post-course test scores were significantly higher in the dissection group. However, when adjusted for course duration [dissection group took longer than prosection group (mean 411 vs. 265 min)], these findings were negated. There is no conclusive evidence of either pedagogy being superior in teaching surgical anatomy. Based on learner surveys, dissection provides a greater learner experience.  相似文献   

19.
After a considerable amount of research and experimentation, cat dissection was replaced with rat dissection and clay modeling in the human anatomy and physiology laboratory curricula at La Guardia Community College (LAGCC), a large urban community college of the City University of New York (CUNY). This article describes the challenges faculty overcame and the techniques used to solve them. Methods involved were: developing a laboratory manual in conjunction with the publisher, holding training sessions for faculty and staff, the development of instructional outlines for students and lesson plans for faculty, the installation of storage facilities to hold mannequins instead of cat specimens, and designing mannequin clean‐up techniques that could be used by more than one thousand students each semester. The effectiveness of these curricular changes was assessed by examining student muscle practical examination grades and the responses of faculty and students to questionnaires. The results demonstrated that the majority of faculty felt prepared to teach using clay modeling and believed the activity was effective in presenting lesson content. Students undertaking clay modeling had significantly higher muscle practical examination grades than students undertaking cat dissection, and the majority of students believed that clay modeling was an effective technique to learn human skeletal, respiratory, and cardiovascular anatomy, which included the names and locations of blood vessels. Furthermore, the majority of students felt that rat dissection helped them learn nervous, digestive, urinary, and reproductive system anatomy. Faculty experience at LAGCC may serve as a resource to other academic institutions developing new curricula for large, on‐going courses. Anat Sci Educ. 7: 38–46. © 2013 American Association of Anatomists.  相似文献   

20.
Much of the content delivered during medical students' preclinical years is assessed nationally by such testing as the United States Medical Licensing Examination® (USMLE®) Step 1 and Comprehensive Osteopathic Medical Licensing Examination® (COMPLEX‐USA®) Step 1. Improvement of student study/learning strategies skills is associated with academic success in internal and external (USMLE Step 1) examinations. This research explores the strength of association between the Learning and Study Strategies Inventory (LASSI) scores and student performance in the anatomical sciences and USMLE Step 1 examinations. The LASSI inventory assesses learning and study strategies based on ten subscale measures. These subscales include three components of strategic learning: skill (Information processing, Selecting main ideas, and Test strategies), will (Anxiety, Attitude, and Motivation) and self‐regulation (Concentration, Time management, Self‐testing, and Study aid). During second year (M2) orientation, 180 students (Classes of 2016, 2017, and 2018) were administered the LASSI survey instrument. Pearson Product‐Moment correlation analyses identified significant associations between five of the ten LASSI subscales (Anxiety, Information processing, Motivation, Selecting main idea, and Test strategies) and students' performance in the anatomical sciences and USMLE Step 1 examinations. Identification of students lacking these skills within the anatomical sciences curriculum allows targeted interventions, which not only maximize academic achievement in an aspect of an institution's internal examinations, but in the external measure of success represented by USMLE Step 1 scores. Anat Sci Educ 11: 236–242. © 2017 American Association of Anatomists.  相似文献   

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