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1.
This conceptual study uses dynamic systems theory (DST) and phenomenology as lenses to examine data privacy implications surrounding wearable devices that incorporate stakeholder, contextual and technical factors. Wearable devices can impact people's behaviour and sense of self, and DST and phenomenology provide complementary approaches for emphasizing the subjective experiences of individuals that occur with the use of wearable data. Privacy is approached through phenomenology as an individual's lived bodily experience and DST emphasizes the self-regulation and feedback loops of individuals and their uses of wearable data. The data collection, analysis and communication of wearable data to support learning systems alongside privacy implications for each are examined. The IoT, cloud computing, metadata and algorithms are discussed as they relate to wearable data, pointing out privacy risks and strategies to minimize harm.

Practitioner notes

What is already known about this topic

  • Data privacy is a complex topic and is approached through different perspectives, influencing the degree of an individual's data autonomy.
  • Wearable technology is increasing in the consumer market and offers great potential to learning environments.

What this paper adds

  • Extends extant literature on dynamic systems theory and phenomenology, contributing these perspectives to educational research in the context of student data privacy and wearable technologies.
  • Provides a framework to understand the complex and contingent ways that privacy can be understood in the collection, analysis, and communication of wearable data to support learning.

Implications for practice and/or policy

  • Higher education faculty and educational policymakers should consider various interactions in systems and among systems of how wearable data collection may be analysed, communicated and stored, potentially exposing students to privacy harms.
  • Multiple actors in learning systems must engage in continuous and evolving feedback loops around data security, consent, ownership and control to determine who has access to student data, how it is used and for what purposes.
  • The EU's General Data Protection and Regulation offers one of the most comprehensive frameworks for higher education institutions and faculty around the world to follow for protecting student data privacy.
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2.
An extraordinary amount of data is becoming available in educational settings, collected from a wide range of Educational Technology tools and services. This creates opportunities for using methods from Artificial Intelligence and Learning Analytics (LA) to improve learning and the environments in which it occurs. And yet, analytics results produced using these methods often fail to link to theoretical concepts from the learning sciences, making them difficult for educators to trust, interpret and act upon. At the same time, many of our educational theories are difficult to formalise into testable models that link to educational data. New methodologies are required to formalise the bridge between big data and educational theory. This paper demonstrates how causal modelling can help to close this gap. It introduces the apparatus of causal modelling, and shows how it can be applied to well-known problems in LA to yield new insights. We conclude with a consideration of what causal modelling adds to the theory-versus-data debate in education, and extend an invitation to other investigators to join this exciting programme of research.

Practitioner notes

What is already known about this topic

  • ‘Correlation does not equal causation’ is a familiar claim in many fields of research but increasingly we see the need for a causal understanding of our educational systems.
  • Big data bring many opportunities for analysis in education, but also a risk that results will fail to replicate in new contexts.
  • Causal inference is a well-developed approach for extracting causal relationships from data, but is yet to become widely used in the learning sciences.

What this paper adds

  • An overview of causal modelling to support educational data scientists interested in adopting this promising approach.
  • A demonstration of how constructing causal models forces us to more explicitly specify the claims of educational theories.
  • An understanding of how we can link educational datasets to theoretical constructs represented as causal models so formulating empirical tests of the educational theories that they represent.

Implications for practice and/or policy

  • Causal models can help us to explicitly specify educational theories in a testable format.
  • It is sometimes possible to make causal inferences from educational data if we understand our system well enough to construct a sufficiently explicit theoretical model.
  • Learning Analysts should work to specify more causal models and test their predictions, as this would advance our theoretical understanding of many educational systems.
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3.
Due partly to the multimodal and multiscalar nature of technology applications, there lacks theories to explain successful technology integration in teaching and learning in higher education. Such multidisciplinary theories developed primarily within Western contexts as behaviourism, cognitivism, constructivism, connectivism, collaborationism, TPACK framework and authentic learning theory have been used to underpin technology-enhanced teaching and learning globally. However, their primary focus on basic education and their sensitivity to contextual reality seem to restrict their salience and fecundity to successfully explain technology integration in higher education in the Global South, including Africa. For more contextual relevance and significance, the embodiment in curricula and pedagogy of African knowledge systems and emerging societal needs and challenges is thus critical. Drawing on Asabiyya and Ubuntu humanistic philosophies respectively from Northern and Southern Africa and Yoruba empiricist and Zara Yacob rationalist epistemologies from Western and Eastern Africa, this study proposes African philosophical perspectives to underpin technology integration in higher education. The epistemologies define the nature of student and faculty engagements and strategies, whereas the humanistic philosophies offer values that could guide ethical technology use and engagement. Technologies are conceived alternatively as knowledge banks, communication media and cognitive tools to think through and with. Implications for further research and practice are identified.

Practitioner notes

What is already known about this topic

  • Multidisciplinary theories developed primarily within Western contexts are used to underpin technology-enhanced teaching and learning globally.
  • Their primary focus on basic education and their sensitivity to socio-cultural and economic contextual reality restrict their salience and fecundity to successfully explain technology integration in teaching and learning in higher education in the Global South, including Africa.
  • African philosophical, theoretical, conceptual and methodological thinking is critical for successful technology integration.

What this paper adds

  • This study interrogated how African philosophies of humanity and knowledge could support successful technology integration in teaching and learning in Africa.
  • Drawing on Asabiyya and Ubuntu philosophies, respectively, from Northern and Southern Africa, the study proposes strategies for making the oppressive faculty–student relationships rampant in African campuses more humane and emancipatory.
  • Drawing on Yoruba empiricist and Zara Yacob rationalist epistemological orientations from Western and Eastern Africa, this study proposes strategies for supporting truly engaging and empowering pedagogies within technology-enhanced spaces.

Implications for practice and/or policy

  • The purpose of education in successful technology-enhanced spaces needs to aim at improving student capacities and skills for further learning and to ensure full participation in practice communities within and outside higher education.
  • The content of education or curriculum needs to primarily embody African/local philosophical, theoretical, conceptual and methodological thinking, as well as emerging community needs and challenges.
  • The method of education and student assessment need to support and promote the cultivation of student skills and capabilities as well as values and ethics highly needed in their communities and beyond.
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4.
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5.
To test the suitability of an automatic system for emotional management in the classroom following the control-value theory of achievement emotions (CVT) framework, the performance of an emotional expression recognition software of our creation is evaluated in an online synchronous context. Sixty students from the Faculty of Education at the University of Alicante participated in 16 educational activities recording close-ups of their faces and completing the AEQ emotional self-report, as well as detailed reports from the subsequent review of their videos. In addition, they completed the VCQ-36 test to measure their volitional competencies and relate their influence on their emotional response. The results indicate a high coherence between the emotional expressions detected by the automatic system and the detailed emotional self-reports, but insufficient precision to meet the CVT requirements. On the other hand, both the AEQ test results and the emotion expression recognition software suggest students' preference for participative activities as opposed to passive ones. Meanwhile, statistical analysis results indicate that volitional competencies seem to influence the emotional response of students in the educational context, although the AI system does not show sufficient sensitivity in this field. Implications and limitations of this study for future work are discussed.

Practitioner notes

What is already known about this topic

  • Student motivation and involvement in the learning process are highly related to appropriate emotional regulation, which can be associated with particular educational activities, strategies and methodologies.
  • Deep learning technology based on convolutional neural networks feeds automatic systems focused on facial expression recognition from image analysis.

What this paper adds

  • There is high coherence between the emotional expressions detected by the AI system and the students' emotional self-reports, but the AI system provides just emotional valences, insufficient to meet the CVT framework.
  • Both emotional self-reports and the emotion recognition software suggest students' preference for active educational activities as opposed to passive ones.
  • Volitional competencies seem to influence the emotional response of students in the educational context.

Implications for practice and/or policy

  • It is possible to use automatic systems to effectively monitor the emotional response of students in the learning process.
  • Only if sensitivity improved, a real-time, easy-to-interpret emotional expression recognition software interface could be implemented to assist teachers with the emotional management of their classes within the CVT framework, maximizing their motivation and engagement.
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6.
This paper suggests that artificial intelligence in education (AIEd) can be fruitfully analysed as ‘policies frozen in silicon’. This means that they exist as both materialised and proposed problematisations (problem representations with corresponding solutions). As a theoretical and analytical response, this paper puts forward a heuristic lens that can provide insights into how AI technologies (or advocated AI technologies) function as proposed solutions to certain problematisations based on various imaginaries about how education and learning are best performed or supported. The combined reading of imaginaries and problematisations can thereby aid in our understanding of why and how visions of learning and education are framed in relation to AIEd developments. The overall ambition is to advance theoretical and analytical approaches towards an educational system which is (anticipated as) increasingly permeated by AI systems—systems that also support and implement, more or less, invisible models, standards and assessments of learning, as well as more grand visions of (technology-augmented) education in society.

Practitioner notes

What is already known about this topic

  • Artificial intelligence in education (AIEd) is repeatedly presented as a solution for a range of educational ‘problems’.
  • This means that such ‘solutions’ must also frame certain aspects as ‘problems’.
  • Such problems and ‘solutions’ (problematisations) also exist within certain imaginaries of the present times and of the future, where these problematisations are presented as particularly significant and acute, and promoting specific anticipations of learning and ideals of education.

What this paper adds

  • An exposition of problematisations in educational settings.
  • An exposition of educational imaginaries.
  • A heuristic lens for understanding the ‘present’ and ‘future’ in a particular imaginary as entangled in, and dependent on, a certain ‘past’.

Implications for practice and/or policy

  • The approach presented in this paper provides a heuristic lens for examining how AI technologies (or advocated AI technologies) function as proposed solutions to problematisations based on imaginaries about how education and learning are best performed or supported.
  • This aids our understanding of how and why certain visions of learning and education are framed in relation to AIEd developments (real or imagined).
  • It also advances theoretical and analytical approaches towards an educational system, which is (anticipated as) increasingly permeated by AI systems—systems that also support and implement, more or less, invisible models, standards and assessments of learning, as well as more grand visions of (technology-augmented) education in society.
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7.
As universities moved to remotely taught courses during the COVID-19 pandemic, the importance of maintaining academic integrity in online environments intensified. In response, this study explores instructors' perceptions about the role of online proctoring as a tool for their courses with the intent of enhancing the understanding of online proctoring's usefulness in ensuring academic integrity and the factors that may be swaying instructors' adoption decisions. An online survey was completed by 158 instructors at a variety of higher education institutions with 118 responding to an open-ended question that allowed respondents to share any additional thoughts about or experiences with using online proctoring. A thematic review of the qualitative comments illustrates the multifaceted impact of online proctoring on instructors and students. Results identified instructors' perceived benefits and challenges of online proctoring to them, their students and the learning process. In addition, instructors voiced numerous legal, ethical and social concerns about the use of online proctoring, including concerns related to students' privacy. Despite these concerns, some instructors identified strong use cases for online proctoring while others provided alternative strategies for ensuring academic integrity in online courses. As institutions consider the role of online proctoring in ensuring academic integrity, a holistic approach that balances instructional design best practices, student-friendly policies and proctoring tools is recommended to serve the complex needs and concerns of instructors, students and their institutions.

Practitioner notes

What is already known about this topic

  • Prior research findings are mixed as to whether proctoring is valuable for ensuring academic integrity in online courses.
  • Studies investigating grade performance in proctored versus unproctored exam settings have conflicting results; however, studies have found that students completing proctored formative exams perform better on summative exams than students completing non-proctored formative exams.

What this paper adds

  • Qualitative data were collected to provide an overview of instructors' perceptions about and experiences with online proctoring.
  • Analysis suggests that online proctoring is beneficial to some instructors, students and the overall learning process. At the same time, its use is also concerning to other instructors and students. Among the issues raised by instructors are concerns for student privacy, increases in student test anxiety and discriminatory proctoring practices.

Implications for practice and/or policy

  • Institutions must be proactive in ensuring that the use of online proctoring aligns with their institutional values and the changing legal landscape.
  • Institutional policies should strive to find a balance between ensuring academic integrity and promoting a positive experience for students and instructors. Since there are strong use cases for online proctoring, these policies should include flexibility whenever possible.
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8.
Postsecondary institutions have a legal responsibility to ensure that students have access to a safe learning environment. While institutions adopt policies and hire administrators to protect students from harm, many are underprepared to support students when these harmful incidents happen online. This is of increased concern now that online aggression is pervasive across universities worldwide. While faculty, administrators and students agree that online aggression is a significant issue and that institutions ought to provide prevention and response services, there is concern that these efforts might violate privacy norms. We used the theory of privacy as contextual integrity (CI) to explore the tensions that postsecondary students and staff perceive regarding student privacy when responding to incidents of online aggression. To do so, we conducted focus groups with undergraduate students and student affairs administrators from a Historically Black College and University (HBCU) in the Mid-Atlantic USA. Our analysis surfaced three considerations that inform students' and staff's decision to report an incident of online aggression: their closeness to the person making the post, their perception of the online post content as a real threat and their knowledge of an authority figure who could help resolve the situation. We used CI theory to explain how these considerations can inform institutional policy, practice and future research.

Practitioner notes

What is already known about this topic

  • Online aggression is a pervasive issue at postsecondary institutions worldwide that can contribute to psychological, academic and developmental issues.
  • Postsecondary students and staff are unsure of how to respond to incidents of online aggression.
  • There is a gap in policies and procedures for responding to online aggression at postsecondary institutions.

What this paper adds

  • A novel use of Nissenbaum's (2010) theory of contextual integrity to understand students' and staff's perceptions of privacy.
  • Students' and staff's decisions to intervene or report an online aggression incident are determined by their relationship to the perpetrator, the severity of the social media post and their knowledge of who to tell on campus.
  • Students and staff are reluctant to inform the police out of fear of violence against the perpetrator.

Implications for practice and/or policy

  • Raise awareness about responding to online aggression incidents.
  • Implement online bystander intervention training programs to increase awareness and self-efficacy to intervene in unclear situations.
  • Develop clear policies regarding online aggression, as well as a trustworthy procedure for how to respond.
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9.
Twenty years after its inauguration, the information communication and technology for accelerated development (ICT4AD) policy intended to transform Ghana into an information and technology-driven high-income economy through digital education has been unsuccessful. In this digital era, young adults' attachment to technological tools is anticipated to expedite technological adoption in the education sector. Still, there are less promising indicators of realizing this expectation because of situational factors that curtail technology usage and adoption in higher education (HE). It is estimated that the adoption of technology in HE will aid Ghana in using ICT as its engine of growth. This paper gauges the progress of the ICT4AD policy after two decades, presents an intricate account of why technology integration in HE in Ghana is still in its infancy and proposes interventions for sustaining and advancing the objectives of the ICT4AD policy. Drawing from an extensive review of literature on three conceptualized thematic themes relating to technology (ie, addiction, abduction and adoption), policymakers in education and stakeholders in HE will be able to identify their roles in guaranteeing the success of the promulgated ICT4AD policy. Viable areas of research are also discussed in the study.

Practitioner notes

What is already known about this topic?

  • The promulgated information communication and technology for accelerated development (ICT4AD) policy of Ghana hopes to transform the country into a technology-driven economy.
  • Technology integration in education and society is still in its infancy in Ghana in this information age.

What this paper adds?

  • It gauges the progress of the ICT4AD policy and presents an intricate account of why technology integration in HE in Ghana is still in its infancy and proposes interventions for sustaining and advancing the objectives of the ICT4AD policy.
  • It sounds the alarm that the ICT4AD policy is at its terminal stage and calls on policymakers in education to revisit and revise the policy.
  • It identifies the main factors curtailing effective technology integration in Ghana.
  • It suggests promising steps for Ghana to adopt technology as its engine of growth.

Implications of this study for practice and/or policy

  • It provides information to education practitioners and relevant school stakeholders on how to effectively adopt technology to develop 21st-century skills among learners.
  • It explores the potential channels for policymakers in education to revisit and reinvest in the ICT4AD policy for the successful attainment of the policy objectives.
  • It calls on countries with similar contexts like Ghana to adopt a multifaceted approach to drive ICT initiatives.
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10.
Well-designed computer or app-based instruction has a number of potential benefits (eg increasing accessibility and feasibility of high-quality instruction, reducing time and resources required for training expert delivery, saving instructional time). However, variation in implementation can still affect outcomes when using educational technology. Research generally suggests that without follow-up support after training, implementation of educational interventions is often poor and outcomes reduced. However, the extent to which this is the case when the core element of an intervention is computer or app-delivered is not yet clear. This study investigated the effects of providing ongoing implementation support for Headsprout Early Reading (HER, an early reading programme accessible via a computer or an app), to determine whether such support leads to better outcomes. Twenty-two primary schools (269 learners) participated in a cluster-randomised controlled trial. Eleven schools received initial training followed by ongoing support across the school year, whereas the other 11 schools received initial training and technical support only. Pre- and post-measures of reading skills were conducted using the York Assessment of Reading for Comprehension. We found no effect of implementation support on outcomes, and no effect of implementation support on delivery of the core element of HER. However, there were some effects of implementation support on the implementation of other HER elements relating to the responsiveness of educators to learners' learning within HER. These findings have implications for providing access to high quality online instruction in early reading skills at scale, with minimal training. More broadly, the current study suggests that well-designed computer or app-based instruction can yield positive outcomes with minimal implementation support and training. However, further research is required to ensure the interplay between learners' app-based learning and teacher intervention functions as intended to provide additional support for those who need it.

Practitioner notes

What is already known about this topic

  • Well-designed computer or app-based instruction has a number of potential benefits (eg increasing accessibility and feasibility of high-quality instruction, reducing time and resources required for training expert delivery, saving instructional time).
  • Implementation can still affect outcomes when using educational technology, and without follow-up support after training, implementation of educational interventions is often poor and outcomes reduced.
  • The extent to which this is the case when the core element of an intervention is computer or app-delivered is not yet clear.

What this paper adds

  • We found that providing implementation support for teachers and teaching assistants delivering Headsprout Early Reading (HER; an early reading programme accessible via a computer or an app) did not affect the reading outcomes of learners.
  • We also found the implementation support did not affect delivery of the core, app-delivered element of the programme.
  • However, there were notable differences in implementation of other aspects of the programme, particularly in relation to the role of the teacher or educational practitioner in managing the interplay between the app-based learning and teacher intervention for learners who require further support.

Implications for practice and policy

  • These findings have implications for providing access to high quality instruction in early reading skills at scale, with minimal training.
  • More broadly, the current study suggests that well-designed computer or app-based instruction can yield positive outcomes with minimal implementation support and training.
  • However, the findings of this study identify some potential risk of an over-reliance on technology to facilitate the learning of all learners accessing the programme.
  • Further research is required to ensure the interplay between learners' app-based learning and teacher intervention functions as intended to provide additional support for those who need it.
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11.
Online professional development programmes have a long tradition in adult education. However, in early childhood education, such programmes are only just beginning to be developed. Before online professional development courses can be made inclusive, accessible and widely available to early childhood educators, they must meet a few basic requirements. The present study provides insights into essential aspects that need to be considered when setting up online professional development programmes, a field which is still in its infancy in Austria. The results of a representative survey (n = 317) demonstrated that early childhood educators' digital competencies are highly variable and cannot be taken for granted. The survey results also stress the need to provide educators with functional digital devices appropriate to their work environment. Early childhood educators' interest in online professional development programmes is very high, in recognition of the advantages afforded by flexible participation options independent of users' time constraints or location. The development of attractive, compelling and accessible online professional development courses can contribute to current professionalisation efforts in the field of early childhood education.

Practitioner notes

What is already known about this topic
  • Online professional development has already a very long tradition in the field of adult vocational training but not in Early Childhood Education.
  • The possibility of attending online professional development programmes independent of a participant's time constraints or location is viewed as a particularly beneficial advantage.
  • Online professional development programmes positively affect the professionalisation of educators. For this reason, they must increasingly be integrated into the field of early childhood education.
What this paper adds
  • In the field of early childhood education in German-speaking regions, online professional development training courses are only beginning to be developed.
  • This paper examines the challenges and barriers for early childhood educators associated with implementing online professional development programmes for early childhood educators.
  • The survey was conducted during the COVID-19 pandemic and includes current data on the ongoing digitalisation boom.
Implications for practise and/or policy
  • Online professional development courses should not be understood as competition for conventional face-to-face programmes. Instead, they act as a useful supplement.
  • Media competencies are a fundamental prerequisite for everyday professional life—early childhood educators need functional media devices, stable internet connections, and support structures in IT and computer literacy.
  • Early childhood educators require effective instruction in using online professional development programmes to expand online professional development programmes in their field. They must also address compelling topics in early childhood education relevant to educators' practise.
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12.
The COVID-19 pandemic has posed a significant challenge to higher education and forced academic institutions across the globe to abruptly shift to remote teaching. Because of the emergent transition, higher education institutions continuously face difficulties in creating satisfactory online learning experiences that adhere to the new norms. This study investigates the transition to online learning during Covid-19 to identify factors that influenced students' satisfaction with the online learning environment. Adopting a mixed-method design, we find that students' experience with online learning can be negatively affected by information overload, and perceived technical skill requirements, and describe qualitative evidence that suggest a lack of social interactions, class format, and ambiguous communication also affected perceived learning. This study suggests that to digitalize higher education successfully, institutions need to redesign students' learning experience systematically and re-evaluate traditional pedagogical approaches in the online context.

Practitioner notes

What is already known about this topic
  • University transitions to online learning during the Covid-19 pandemic were undertaken by faculty and students who had little online learning experience.
  • The transition to online learning was often described as having a negative influence on students' learning experience and mental health.
  • Varieties of cognitive load are known predictors of effective online learning experiences and satisfaction.
What this paper adds
  • Information overload and perceptions of technical abilities are demonstrated to predict students' difficulty and satisfaction with online learning.
  • Students express negative attitudes towards factors that influence information overload, technical factors, and asynchronous course formats.
  • Communication quantity was not found to be a significant factor in predicting either perceived difficulty or negative attitudes.
Implications for practice and/or policy
  • We identify ways that educators in higher education can improve their online offerings and implementations during future disruptions.
  • We offer insights into student experience concerning online learning environments during an abrupt transition.
  • We identify design factors that contribute to effective online delivery, educators in higher education can improve students' learning experiences during difficult periods and abrupt transitions to online learning.
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13.
Recent years have seen a surge of calls for personalization of education. Automatised adaptivity in serious games has been advocated as a potential instantiation of such calls. Yet little is known about the extent to which personalised learning through automatised adaptivity poses an advantage for language learning over generalised teacher-led sequencing in digital, game-based learning environments. The goal of this paper is to address this question by comparing the learning outcomes in reading accuracy and fluency of didactic sequences designed by EFL teachers or by an adaptive algorithm. A total of 67 participants completed several proficiency and reading skills pretest and posttest and used the iRead system for 6 months. Results showed that all learners made progress in reading skills, but no significant differences were found between the two sequences in relation to the development of reading skills. It was also shown that adaptivity works best if it leads to increase in the number of games per feature. Results are discussed in the context of previous findings, and the role of adaptivity and sequencing is critically assessed.

Practitioner notes

What is already known about this topic?
  • Serious games have the potential to aid learning but empirical research is needed.
  • Findings about the efficiency of serious games are mixed.
  • Current and reviewed versions of the Simple View of Reading constitute a suitable framework to measure reading acquisition.
What this paper adds?
  • It contributes to the growing corpus of research on digital serious games.
  • It provides empirical evidence on the use of an adaptive system in formal education.
  • Comparing a teacher-led sequence to an algorithmic adaptive sequence on the same digital serious game has never been done before.
  • The paper shows the need to obtain both system-internal and system-external data in order to capture the impact of gameplay on the development of L2 reading skills.
Implications for practise and/or policy
  • It sheds some light on how certain game designs may actually help practise with different degrees of intervention by teachers.
  • It is interesting for teachers to use an adaptive sequence that they can check and intervene in if needed.
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14.
While interactive touchscreens are currently entering into educational practice, little is known about what this means for learning in early childhood and, in particular, how touchscreens shape action and communication. In this paper, we examine the interactions of 2-year-olds and their teachers in a multilingual preschool in Sweden. We analyse the communicative environment between the children, teachers and shared touchscreens and books in the context of reading. A mixed-methods analysis was used, taking a concept of action that includes both verbal, non-verbal utterances and digital touch. The analysis shows a reconfiguration to the interactional dynamic where children perform comparable amounts of actions in sessions with the touchscreen and book reading but less talk during the touchscreen sessions. However, while talking less, children display other types of communicative actions. We analyse the changing interactional dynamic that follows, its implications to learning and early childhood pedagogical practice and how interaction can be reconceptualised as cycles of communication and action in which educational scaffolding unfolds.

Practitioner notes

What is already known about this topic
  • Touchscreens are a significant part of children's lives and educational curricula.
  • There is considerable uncertainty on how touchscreens can be incorporated into early childhood education.
  • Little is known about how educational social interaction changes with touchscreens such as iPads.
What this paper adds
  • A mixed methods multimodal analysis of the changing actions and dynamics of iPads as compared with bookreading.
  • Children's patterns of communication change towards less talk and more bodily communication, while teachers’ actions remain somewhat similar.
  • Touch actions change the dynamics of interaction, can alter the pedagogical situation and bring a reconceptualisation towards a cyclical and embodied view of interaction.
Implications for practice and/or policy
  • New patterns of action may require a recalibration of educational practices.
  • Teachers need to attend to new sets of touch actions that children use to communicate and act with as displays of knowledge.
  • The use of touch screens should be seen as complementary to established practices of language and literacy training (such as book reading) rather than replacing them.
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15.
Game-based learning environments hold significant promise for facilitating learning experiences that are both effective and engaging. To support individualised learning and support proactive scaffolding when students are struggling, game-based learning environments should be able to accurately predict student knowledge at early points in students' gameplay. Student knowledge is traditionally assessed prior to and after each student interacts with the learning environment with conventional methods, such as multiple choice content knowledge assessments. While previous student modelling approaches have leveraged machine learning to automatically infer students' knowledge, there is limited work that incorporates the fine-grained content from each question in these types of tests into student models that predict student performance at early junctures in gameplay episodes. This work investigates a predictive student modelling approach that leverages the natural language text of the post-gameplay content knowledge questions and the text of the possible answer choices for early prediction of fine-grained individual student performance in game-based learning environments. With data from a study involving 66 undergraduate students from a large public university interacting with a game-based learning environment for microbiology, Crystal Island , we investigate the accuracy and early prediction capacity of student models that use a combination of gameplay features extracted from student log files as well as distributed representations of post-test content assessment questions. The results demonstrate that by incorporating knowledge about assessment questions, early prediction models are able to outperform competing baselines that only use student game trace data with no question-related information. Furthermore, this approach achieves high generalisation, including predicting the performance of students on unseen questions.

Practitioner notes

What is already known about this topic
  • A distinctive characteristic of game-based learning environments is their capacity to enable fine-grained student assessment.
  • Adaptive game-based learning environments offer individualisation based on specific student needs and should be able to assess student competencies using early prediction models of those competencies.
  • Word embedding approaches from the field of natural language processing show great promise in the ability to encode semantic information that can be leveraged by predictive student models.
What this paper adds
  • Investigates word embeddings of assessment question content for reliable early prediction of student performance.
  • Demonstrates the efficacy of distributed word embeddings of assessment questions when used by early prediction models compared to models that use either no assessment information or discrete representations of the questions.
  • Demonstrates the efficacy and generalisability of word embeddings of assessment questions for predicting the performance of both new students on existing questions and existing students on new questions.
Implications for practice and/or policy
  • Word embeddings of assessment questions can enhance early prediction models of student knowledge, which can drive adaptive feedback to students who interact with game-based learning environments.
  • Practitioners should determine if new assessment questions will be developed for their game-based learning environment, and if so, consider using our student modelling framework that incorporates early prediction models pretrained with existing student responses to previous assessment questions and is generalisable to the new assessment questions by leveraging distributed word embedding techniques.
  • Researchers should consider the most appropriate way to encode the assessment questions in ways that early prediction models are able to infer relationships between the questions and gameplay behaviour to make accurate predictions of student competencies.
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16.
A significant body of the literature has documented the potential of Augmented Reality (AR) in education, but little is known about the effects of AR-supported instruction in tertiary-level Medical Education (ME). This quasi-experimental study compares a traditional instructional approach with supplementary online lecture materials using digital handout notes with a control group (n = 30) and an educational AR application with an experimental group (n = 30) to investigate any possible added-value and gauge the impact of each approach on students' academic performance and training satisfaction. This study's findings indicate considerable differences in both academic performance and training satisfaction between the two groups. The participants in the experimental group performed significantly better than their counterparts, an outcome which is also reflected in their level of training satisfaction through interacting and viewing 3D multimedia content. This study contributes by providing guidelines on how an AR-supported intervention can be integrated into ME and provides empirical evidence on the benefits that such an approach can have on students' academic performance and knowledge acquisition.

Practitioner notes

What is already known about this topic
  • Several studies have applied various Augmented Reality (AR) applications across different learning disciplines.
  • The effects of AR on students' perceptions and achievements in higher education contexts is well-documented.
  • Despite the increasing use of AR-instruction in Medical Education (ME), there has been no explicit focus on AR's effects on students' academic performance and satisfaction.
What this paper adds
  • This quasi-experimental study compares the academic performance and training satisfaction of students in an experimental group (AR) and a control group (handout notes).
  • This study provides instructional insights into, and recommendations that may help students achieve better academic performance in AR-supported ME courses.
  • The experimental group reported greater training satisfaction than their counterparts.
Implications for practice and policy
  • Students who followed the AR-supported instruction achieved better academic performance that those in the control group.
  • AR-supported interventions encourage active learning and lead to significant performance improvement.
  • The experimental group outperformed the control group in academic performance and training satisfaction measurements, despite the lower experimental group's lower pre-test performance scores.
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17.
Predictors of academic success at university are of great interest to educators, researchers and policymakers. With more students studying online, it is important to understand whether traditional predictors of academic outcomes in face-to-face settings are relevant to online learning. This study modelled self-regulatory and demographic predictors of subject grades in 84 online and 80 face-to-face undergraduate students. Predictors were effort regulation, grade goal, academic self-efficacy, performance self-efficacy, age, sex, socio-economic status (SES) and first-in-family status. A multi-group path analysis indicated that the models were significantly different across learning modalities. For face-to-face students, none of the model variables significantly predicted grades. For online students, only performance self-efficacy significantly predicted grades (small effect). Findings suggest that learner characteristics may not function in the same way across learning modes. Further factor analytic and hierarchical research is needed to determine whether self-regulatory predictors of academic success continue to be relevant to modern student cohorts.

Practitioner Notes

What is already known about this topic
  • Self-regulatory and demographic variables are important predictors of university outcomes like grades.
  • It is unclear whether the relationships between predictor variables and outcomes are the same across learning modalities, as research findings are mixed.
What this paper adds
  • Models predicting university students' grades by demographic and self-regulatory predictors differed significantly between face-to-face and online learning modalities.
  • Performance self-efficacy significantly predicted grades for online students.
  • No self-regulatory variables significantly predicted grades for face-to-face students, and no demographic variables significantly predicted grades in either cohort.
  • Overall, traditional predictors of grades showed no/small unique effects in both cohorts.
Implications for practice and/or policy
  • The learner characteristics that predict success may not be the same across learning modalities.
  • Approaches to enhancing success in face-to-face settings are not automatically applicable to online settings.
  • Self-regulatory variables may not predict university outcomes as strongly as previously believed, and more research is needed.
  相似文献   

18.
With the widespread use of learning analytics (LA), ethical concerns about fairness have been raised. Research shows that LA models may be biased against students of certain demographic subgroups. Although fairness has gained significant attention in the broader machine learning (ML) community in the last decade, it is only recently that attention has been paid to fairness in LA. Furthermore, the decision on which unfairness mitigation algorithm or metric to use in a particular context remains largely unknown. On this premise, we performed a comparative evaluation of some selected unfairness mitigation algorithms regarded in the fair ML community to have shown promising results. Using a 3-year program dropout data from an Australian university, we comparatively evaluated how the unfairness mitigation algorithms contribute to ethical LA by testing for some hypotheses across fairness and performance metrics. Interestingly, our results show how data bias does not always necessarily result in predictive bias. Perhaps not surprisingly, our test for fairness-utility tradeoff shows how ensuring fairness does not always lead to drop in utility. Indeed, our results show that ensuring fairness might lead to enhanced utility under specific circumstances. Our findings may to some extent, guide fairness algorithm and metric selection for a given context.

Practitioner notes

What is already known about this topic
  • LA is increasingly being used to leverage actionable insights about students and drive student success.
  • LA models have been found to make discriminatory decisions against certain student demographic subgroups—therefore, raising ethical concerns.
  • Fairness in education is nascent. Only a few works have examined fairness in LA and consequently followed up with ensuring fair LA models.
What this paper adds
  • A juxtaposition of unfairness mitigation algorithms across the entire LA pipeline showing how they compare and how each of them contributes to fair LA.
  • Ensuring ethical LA does not always lead to a dip in performance. Sometimes, it actually improves performance as well.
  • Fairness in LA has only focused on some form of outcome equality, however equality of outcome may be possible only when the playing field is levelled.
Implications for practice and/or policy
  • Based on desired notion of fairness and which segment of the LA pipeline is accessible, a fairness-minded decision maker may be able to decide which algorithm to use in order to achieve their ethical goals.
  • LA practitioners can carefully aim for more ethical LA models without trading significant utility by selecting algorithms that find the right balance between the two objectives.
  • Fairness enhancing technologies should be cautiously used as guides—not final decision makers. Human domain experts must be kept in the loop to handle the dynamics of transcending fair LA beyond equality to equitable LA.
  相似文献   

19.
While computing has been (re)introduced into the basic education curricula in various countries, its actual implementation appears to be inconsistent. There are schools in which computing education is commonplace, while the implementation seems to be lagging behind in others. There is emerging evidence that some teachers do not consider computing education relevant, meaningful and important and, thus, intentionally neglect its provision. This is problematic as understanding the principles of code and computing is crucial for agentic citizenship in the post-digital era. This paper argues that one main reason for these teachers' reluctance is the economy-driven discursive framing of computing education, which is in contrast with the socialization-oriented manner in which teachers approach their work. To contribute to resolving this issue, the present paper introduces a transversal approach to computing education. It conceptualizes code as a sociomaterial text with social and societal histories and consequences. Theoretically and conceptually, the approach draws on the pedagogy of multiliteracies. The leading idea is that digital technologies are examined with students from functional and critical dimensions and through micro and macro perspectives. The use of wearable sports technologies, such as activity wristbands, are used as practical examples to put the theoretical ideas into context.

Practitioner notes

What is already known about this topic
  • Computing has been (re)introduced in the curricula of basic education in various countries.
  • Some teachers are found to be reluctant to teach computing in basic education.
What this paper adds
  • This paper introduces a transversal multiliteracies-based approach for computing education.
Implications for practice and policy
  • Computing should be included in curricula and classrooms in a holistic manner that includes both functional and critical approaches to computing.
  相似文献   

20.
The present study assessed the effectiveness of the ECRIMO educational application designed to build first-grade level spelling skills. We tested whether using the app to teach spelling would be as effective as providing the same training using traditional paper exercises. The effect of integrating gamification into mobile learning apps, which has been little studied in the context of young children, is also investigated. A pretest/training/posttest design was implemented with 311 first-graders divided in four groups: no training, paper training, the ECRIMO app with gamification features, and the ECRIMO app without gamification. Spelling, reading and phonological awareness abilities was measured at both pretest and posttest. The training was conducted over a 7-week period (4.40 hours in total). The experimental design allowed us to answer three questions: (1) Is spelling training effective regardless of the medium used? (2) Is training through the app as efficient as paper-based training? (3) Does gamification impact students' learning performance? Mixed-model analyses revealed (1) a positive effect on the training outcome depended on the initial spelling ability of participants, (2) a comparable efficiency between autonomous training using the ECRIMO app on tablets and the same training provided by teachers using paper exercises and (3) a marginally positive effect of gamification that is greater for the weakest students. The present study proposes an original and pertinent experimental design to test the relevance of educational applications. The design features of learning apps can impact students' learning differently depending on their initial level. A critical step should be verifying that using online apps for training is at least as effective as the same training using paper exercises.

Practitioner notes

What is already known about this topic
  • A significant number of children experience difficulties in reading and spelling from the first years of learning.
  • The use of new technologies to support classroom teaching is rapidly developing as a topic of interest for educational professionals and researchers.
  • Evaluations of new technologies developed to enhance literacy skills suggest that many factors can vary their effectiveness.
  • The effectiveness of a digital educational application can be enhanced or undermined by design choices, such as gamification.
What this paper adds
  • Spelling training with the app ECRIMO seems effective for first year students, especially those with the lowest and middle level.
  • Comparable effects of both the tablet-based and paper equivalent training on participants' spelling were found.
  • The use of gamification in ECRIMO could be more suitable for the weakest students.
Implications for practice and/or policy
  • Educational technologies should be evidence-based and should be evaluated with both a passive and an active control group.
  • The design should be carefully considered and tested, as it may be advantageous for some students and disadvantageous for others.
  • The use of digital technology in education can be beneficial for classroom practice, when the activity can be carried out in total autonomy, leaving the teacher available for a group of pupils with specific needs.
  相似文献   

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