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1.
Copper trihydroxychloride [Cu2Cl(OH)3] exists with four polymorphs: atacamite, paratacamite, clinoatacamite, and botallackite. They have all been used as green pigments, usually under the name atacamite. For many years, atacamite was regarded as a pigment mainly used in ancient South America, China, and Egypt. However, the last decades have shown that atacamite has been found in European medieval paintings, and quite often in Sweden. This paper gives a brief overview of the history of atacamite and its polymorphs. Green pigments from medieval murals in 56 Swedish churches were analyzed. The results show that atacamite and malachite are common, while green earth is less frequent and green vivianite rare. In particular, atacamite often occurs in medieval wall paintings on the island of Gotland in the Baltic Sea. The atacamite minerals are rare in Europe and are not found in the Swedish bedrock. Their occurrence in Swedish murals and their origin is discussed. Atacamite may be synthesized by various methods and is in fact often observed on corroded outdoor bronze statues in marine surroundings.  相似文献   

2.
A multi-analytical approach for the study of brazilwood and its lake pigments was carried out based on historically accurate reconstructions. Recipes for brazilwood lakes from the fifteenth century technical text Livro de como se fazem as cores and the Winsor & Newton nineteenth century colourman's archive were reproduced and compared. Both primary sources allowed for the successful preparation of brazilwood lake pigments with colours that vary from light pink to dark red. The main steps and ingredients for the manufacture of these pigments were common in both sources, particularly the addition of Al3+ in the form of alum, and calcium carbonate (chalk). Reconstructions revealed that the latter acts as a pH buffer and filler, controlling the pH at which the lake pigment precipitates. The main difference between the two sources is that the nineteenth century recipes give the quantities for all ingredients, the precise temperatures and time, and achieved higher relative pigment yields (75% versus 45%). Full chemical characterisation of the reconstructions provided detailed information on the individual steps in the pigment manufacture and revealed that the presence of calcium sulphate dihydrate (gypsum) in the final pigment was a result of its formation in situ. Infrared, reflectance, and fluorescence spectroscopy proved to be essential and complementary techniques: while infrared was used to characterise additives and binders, reflectance and fluorescence data were fundamental for identifying the chromophore. The pigments and paints produced can now be used as standards for the identification and investigation of brazilwood lake pigments found in artworks.  相似文献   

3.
《文物保护研究》2013,58(3):205-229
Abstract

The purpose of this study was to develop a method for the identification of synthetic organic pigments on the basis of colour reactions with four different chemical reagents: concentrated sulphuric acid, concentrated nitric acid, a mixture of concentrated sulphuric acid and concentrated nitric acid and, finally, a solution of potassium iodate in concentrated sulphuric acid. Colour reactions for a large number of synthetic organic pigments in the form of pure powdered material were recorded. It is shown that the colour reactions observed are in overall agreement with the chemical grouping of pigments (for instance, naphthol AS pigments or quinacridone pigments), i.e., pigments belonging to the same pigment group yield similar colour reactions. This fact is the basis for the construction of flow charts for identification. Tests performed on a number of artists' colours containing pigments in various binding media show that the binding media do not noticeably affect the colour reactions observed, making the flow charts useful for the identification of actual artists' pigments. A fifth chemical reagent, namely a saturated solution of potassium hydroxide in 96% ethanol, was tested and abandoned as a result of its instability, which resulted in severe problems with reproducibility, especially for certain pigment groups, for example the acetoacetarylide pigments.  相似文献   

4.
《文物保护研究》2013,58(4):195-206
Abstract

The investigation of materials found in Bacon's studio is reported. The contents of the studio are examined and interpreted to identify the materials and colours most favoured by Bacon, and the range of media used. A small number of colours appear to have been heavily used. Some objects used as tools in the painting process are also investigated and explain textures seen in paint in his works. Samples of selected materials from the studio are analysed to identify the components of paints (pigments, extenders, and binders) used by Bacon. This investigation is part of a wider project examining his materials and techniques. The analytical information obtained here from the studio helps to clarify the statements made by Bacon in interviews regarding his use of materials and is proving useful in the identification of materials in his paintings, in order to help with the conservation and authentication of his works.  相似文献   

5.
Nine ancient Egyptian sarcophagi of the twenty-fifth to twenty-sixth dynasty, one Ptolemaic Hawk Mummy, and one Amarna fresco were examined in the collections of the San Diego Museum of Man. Binding media, pigments, wood identification, deterioration and alteration products were identified. The pigment palette represents the basic suite of ancient Egyptian pigments: charcoal black, red ochre, yellow ochre, Egyptian blue, green earth, calcite, and gypsum. In the case of the Hawk mummy, oxammite was identified as a degradation product, together with magnesium phosphate, the first identification of oxammite in ancient artefacts. In a child’s coffin, realgar and orpiment were additionally identified. The binding media for practically all of the coffins studied was confirmed as gum Arabic with only one example of gum tragacanth found from a wall plaque from Amarna. Wood identification showed that Ficus sycomorus had been used, rather than the assumed cedar of Lebanon for coffin manufacture. One unidentified species of shrubby wood was also found. Some of the coffins had been restored, with one having a completely repainted face, in rutile, and the child’s coffin has an attached foot-box with modern screws. Possible indications of ancient reuse were found during the study.  相似文献   

6.
《文物保护研究》2013,58(3):134-142
Abstract

Naturally occurring pigments used by Aborigines in rock paintings have been collected in Western Australia. They area red pigment (mainly hematite, Fe2O3)(from a red ochre mine worked until historic times by Aborigines, and a white pigment (huntite, Mg3Ca(CO3)4) which is still collected and used by Aborigines. Samples were also taken from rock paintings in which these pigments were used or were thought to have been used. The pigment samples were analysed to establish chemical, mineralogical, and physical properties. The paint samples were examined microscopically and with an electron probe to study their relationship with the rock surface and with other paint layers. The relationship between the pigments’ properties and their durability is discussed.  相似文献   

7.
《文物保护研究》2013,58(4):304-315
Abstract

A polychromed sculpture was restored and examined. The shrine is made from pine-wood and the sculpture from oak. The ground consists of chalk and animal glue; the pigments are: azurite, a green copper pigment, yellow organic colouring material, orpiment, red lead, vermilion, red organic colouring material, iron oxide red, lead white and charred matter (charcoal ?). Metals used are gold and silver. The medium is on a drying-oil base to which a protein-containing material is added. Generally, the colours were built up in two layers. There is an extensive use of imitation gold, while the use of gold foil is limited to the areas of hair and the flowers on the garments.

In general, the wood in all parts of the object was in good condition and no general impregnation was needed. Cracks in the shrine were filled in with wood or rejoined. The sculpture, which was split in two, was glued together. The condition of the polychromy was relatively good, and only local treatment was required.  相似文献   

8.
ABSTRACT

Twentieth century paints often contain titanium dioxide and zinc oxide based white pigments that can range from photostable to highly photocatalytic. Photocatalytic pigments can cause the degradation of paint upon UV exposure, whereas photostable pigments may be benign or can protect paintings from degradation. Hence, knowing whether or not a pigment is photocatalytic is of high importance for risk assessment and the subsequent decision making process concerning storage and exposure conditions of objects. Here we present a proof of principle, focused on titanium white paints, for an easy-to-use and low-tech application of a commercial photocatalytic activity indicator ink (PAII) on embedded paint samples or cross sections. This test determines, qualitatively, if a photocatalytic pigment is present in a white paint sample. The PAII paint sample staining application shows an obvious color change, within five minutes of UV irradiation, for paint samples containing photocatalytic pigments. A microscope with a camera and a UV source are the only necessary equipment for the application of this method. A quantitative image processing protocol is also proposed as an extension of the staining method by applying open source software analysis to measure the color change using photographs. The test was evaluated on reference paints with well-characterized pigments and applied on samples from modern paintings by Piet Mondriaan, Robert Ryman, and Lucebert, indicating the presence of harmful photocatalytic pigments in these cases. The novel application of a commercial ink on paint samples offers a simple test, not just for assessment of photocatalytic activity of titanium white pigments, but which may in future be applied for the detection of photoactive forms of zinc white and other potentially harmful semiconductor pigments in art objects.  相似文献   

9.
《文物保护研究》2013,58(4):149-154
Abstract

The small areas of white metallic pigment seen on the south wall of J. M. Whistler's ‘Peacock Room’ in the Freer Gallery of Art are platinum; this has been used, with a yellow-brown ground, to overpaint a preceding layer of silver which, in one place only, is over a preceding layer of gold. The yellow metallic pigment is confirmed as gold and the blue colour of the south wall and elsewhere is based on Prussian blue. On a separate wood panel a green was tentatively identified as copper resinate, and iron-oxide-based pigments appear to be present. In all areas investigated a white, used as a ground and in admixture, was essentially lead white and calcium carbonate. The significance of these results is discussed briefly.  相似文献   

10.
This work presents the results of the investigation carried out on a group of terracotta sculptures (modelli) (sixteenth to eighteenth century) belonging to the extraordinary collection of Palazzo Venezia in Rome. The study, the diagnostic analysis, and the conservation work, were possible thanks to the grant supplied by the Getty Foundation of Los Angeles and by the bank Intesa San Paolo. The terracotta modelli had a practical function as they were of great use as sketches to the creation of the final masterpieces or as models for restoration. As a consequence, the terracotta models allow reconstructing the creative process of artists and restorers, fundamental to outlining the ancient workshop production. X-ray fluorescence spectroscopy, micro-stratigraphic investigation, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, and micro-Raman spectroscopy were chosen as useful techniques to study the morphology and composition of the surface-painted layers. Usually the surfaces were painted in order to simulate the materials of the sculpture for which the model was created, for example lead white was used to obtain a white surface simulating marble. But, often the models were re-painted to make them more attractive for the antique trade. So, several pigments have been found on the surfaces such as zinc white, Prussian blue, chrome yellow, and mono-azo pigment. In some cases, the characterization of the surface paintings was particularly important to the final decision about removing or leaving the surface paint in place.  相似文献   

11.
《文物保护研究》2013,58(2):106-111
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12.
《文物保护研究》2013,58(3):181-188
Abstract

The red iron oxide pigment known as burnt yellow earth has been used as a substitute for naturally occurring red earth since earliest times. Documentary evidence indicates that this pigment was often produced by heating yellow earth for anywhere from a few minutes up to several hours at temperatures below 8000 C. When yellow earth is burnt under these conditions, its constituent goethite is transformed to red iron oxide with an anomalous diffraction pattern corresponding to a disordered haematite crystal structure. Using pigments of known origin and processing, it is shown that X-ray microdiffractometry can be used to classify very small samples of red iron oxide pigments and that, in some cases, the diffraction pattern can provide evidence to support or refute the use of burnt yellow earth.  相似文献   

13.
Pigments on a figurative wall painting in Poudeh village, central Iran, were analysed by micro X-ray fluorescence spectrometry, micro Raman spectroscopy, scanning electron microscopy coupled with energy dispersive X-ray spectrometry, micro Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, X-ray diffractometry, and polarised light microscopy. Red lead, ultramarine blue, chrome yellow, brass powder, white huntite, and lammerite (Cu3(AsO4)2) were identified as red, blue, yellow, golden, white, and green pigments, respectively, while gypsum and barite were used as extender. In addition, glushinskite (MgC2O4·2H2O) was identified as a deterioration product of white huntite. Moreover, several analytical studies suggested that lammerite was a degradation product of emerald green (Cu(CH3COO)2·3Cu(AsO2)2) originally used as green pigment in the painting. The formation of lammerite is suggested to be due to the migration of arsenic throughout the paint layer. Based on the pigments identified, the wall painting is dated from the mid-nineteenth century to the mid-twentieth century.  相似文献   

14.
《文物保护研究》2013,58(4):299-314
Abstract

Instrumental-based color matching using non-destructive reflection spectrophotometry can be used as an aid in pigment selection for inpainting. This is useful when metamerism is of concern, particularly in modern art where the number of colorants available to artists and conservators is quite large. Simplified methods have been developed for art conservation where a single tint of each pigment mixed with white is required to define a pigment's optical properties based on the single-constant form of Kubelka-Munk (K-M) turbid media theory. Theoretically, this simplification can lead to errors in pigment selection for dark colors and colors not containing a white pigment. Instead, the two-constant form of K-M theory can be used where the model assumptions more closely match the optics of inpainting materials. The two methods were compared using four acrylic emulsion paints with a range of pigment absorption and scattering properties. It was found that the simplified method was inadequate for paints with appreciable and spectrally selective scattering, and as a consequence, pigment selection may result in a greater number of pigments than actually required. It was also found that only two samples per pigment were required to implement the two-constant technique: the mass tone and a tint.  相似文献   

15.
《文物保护研究》2013,58(3):107-119
Abstract

Samples of pigments from excavated wall-paintings at the great civilization center of the Greek Bronze Age, Thera, have been analysed by the non-destructive methods of X-ray fluorescence, X-ray diffraction and mineralogical microscopic examination. The results showed that three types of blue pigment were used, namely the well-known Egyptian blue, glaucophane, which is a sodium magnesium (or iron) aluminium hydroxide silicate which occurs as a natural mineral on Santorini, and a mixture of Egyptian blue and glaucophane. Black pigments were rather puzzling in that some of them are carbon as expected, and some are manganese compounds. The rest of the pigments are very similar to those previously examined from Mycenae and Knossos.  相似文献   

16.
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17.
《文物保护研究》2013,58(3):177-188
Abstract

The examination of the original polychromy of a fourth century B.C. classical Greek marble basin revealed a number of unusual pigments. In addition to natural cinnabar, and Egyptian blue, analysis has shown the presence of wild madder (Rubia peregrina) as the colorant in a purple pigment. This is one of the very few instances in which the use of madder as a colorant in classical painting has been established analytically. The white pigment was found to be neutral lead carbonate (cerussite). The use of this carbonate in painting is extremely rare. The yellow pigment was identified as misy (jarosite). The use of jarosites, iron sulphates, as pigments in painting has not been reported previously.  相似文献   

18.
《文物保护研究》2013,58(4):239-258
Abstract

Study by X-ray microanalysis of 155 coloured grounds from French paintings of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries allowed us to establish the nature of their constituents. The colour was introduced by three varieties of pigment, brown earths, ochres and iron oxides which were used in combination with calcium carbonate, lead white and minium. This confirms the recipes mentioned in the old treatises. The presence of barium sulphate, unexpected in this period, is connected with the nature of the coloured pigments and the place of execution of the works.  相似文献   

19.
ABSTRACT

The main aim of our current investigation is the colorimetric evaluation of protective treatments (consolidants) applied to traditional Islamic plasterworks, under natural ageing conditions. From analyses of the original pictorial plaster remains in the Courtyard of the Maidens of the Real Alcázar in Seville, Spain (a World Heritage Site) we prepared test specimens, using materials and techniques similar to the original ones. We analysed 56 test specimens painted with four pigments (yellow, green, blue, and red), using two different binders (animal glue and gum arabic), onto which five representative consolidants were applied: barium hydroxide, acrylic copolymer, polyvinyl butyral, ethyl silicate, and bacterial carbonatogenesis. The test specimens were subjected to natural ageing for one year (indoors and outdoors), enabling a colorimetric assessment to be made of the changes of the polychrome surfaces. The colorimetric heterogeneity of the 56 specimens after ageing registered an average value of 2.7 CIELAB units, assessed using the mean colour difference with respect to the mean. In the aged specimens, the addition of consolidants resulted in average colour differences (mainly lightness differences) of 10.7 and 6.7 CIELAB units, considering as a reference the specimens without consolidants aged indoors and outdoors, respectively. These colour differences were very similar for both binders but not for the four pigments, higher values being found for the blue and red pigments. Considering as reference the samples without consolidants aged outdoors, we found no statistically significant colour differences, either among the five consolidants (p?=?.094) nor the two binders (p?=?.674) used. In addition to the magnitude of colour differences, the choice of the most appropriate consolidants must also consider aspects related to performance and effectiveness. Overall, for the type of paints tested, the polyvinyl butyral consolidant appeared to perform the best, followed by the ethyl silicate.  相似文献   

20.
埃及是人类文明发源地之一，埃及人曾创造了灿烂的古代埃及文化。从考古发现可以推测。古代埃及曾经有过数量不少的图书馆或档案馆，大多设在皇宫和寺院，它们在古埃及人的政治、经济、文化乃至生活等方面起着十分重要的作用，也正是这些图书馆创造并保存下“西方文明摇篮”的埃及文化。  相似文献   

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